The Role of Renewable Energy in the Promotion of Circular Urban Metabolism
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Urban Metabolism
Methods for Assessing Urban Metabolism
4. Energy in the Cities
4.1. Renewable Energy in the Cities
4.1.1. Biofuels
4.1.2. Biomass
4.1.3. Biogas
4.1.4. Incineration
4.1.5. Wind Power
4.1.6. Geothermal Energy
4.1.7. Photovoltaic Energy
4.1.8. Solar Thermal
4.1.9. Other Technologies
4.1.10. Integration of Technologies
4.1.11. City Projects
4.1.12. Maturity of Technology
5. Discussion
- The high density of the population concentrated in cities offers opportunities for achieving economies of scale [11], promotion of the development of new jobs, and the growth of the gross domestic product (GDP) [128]. Llera and colleagues [129], mention that the economies of scale at the same time influences jobs requirements between 1.7 and 14 compared with natural gas or coal power plants.
- Increasing GDP and decreasing the intermediate consumption of energy will increase the value added [40].
- It is appropriate to perform an analysis and to suggest actions (of emission reduction or energy savings) at the local level (cities, towns or urban districts) [130].
- Self-provision decreases uncertainties in the energy supply due to externalities [42] and reduces large energy production and transport infrastructures [4,55]. It also allows reductions in the consumption of fossil fuels. In addition, the area requirement for energy production is reduced as transmission networks decrease. Social changes in energy use require changes that influence the implementation of policies that fall under the principles of sustainable development [46,51].
- Rapid urbanization can be used as an opportunity to change the future of cities if they are conceived of as systems in which energy flows can be used in an efficient manner. [131]. Energy supply efficiency is promoted because the losses associated with transport from long distances will decrease [55,103], and there will be a reduction in raw material consumption since it avoids losses by energy transformation [51]. In addition to the use of non-renewable resources (lower consumption of fossil resources), distributed energies are close to the points of consumption (increases energy efficiency), reducing energy dependence and increasing safety and reliability [93,127].
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Schools a | Assesses b | Obtains c | Case Study | Author |
---|---|---|---|---|
Flow Accounting | Ma | In | Munich | [38] |
Inv, Fl, Ba, Be | Lisbon | [39] | ||
En | Ba, In, | Toronto | [31] | |
Fl, Be, In | Singapore, Hong Kong | [40] | ||
Ma | Fl, Be | Typical American city, Brussels, Sydney, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Vienna, London, Cape Town | [19] | |
En | Inv, Fl, Ba, Be | Los Angeles | [3] | |
Inv, Ba, Be, In | Paris | [11,41] | ||
Inv, Fl, Ba, Be | Curitiba | [42] | ||
Inv, Fl, Ba, In | Bogota | [43] | ||
Biophysical Indicators | Em | Inv, Fl, Ba, In | Taipei | [36] |
Inv, Fl, Ba, In | Taipei | [29] | ||
Ba, Be, In | Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Chongqing | [32] | ||
Inv, Fl, Ba, Be | Beijing | [24] | ||
Ex | Inv, Rq, Ef | Kerkrade | [35] | |
Inv, Rq, Ef | Wageningen | [9] |
Sector | System | For urban Integration |
---|---|---|
Biofuels | Bioethanol | Yes |
Biodiesel | No | |
Biomass | Gasification | No |
Direct combustion | Yes | |
Co-combustion | No | |
Biogas | Biogas * | Yes |
Waste | Biogas from MSW ** landfills | Yes |
Incineration and co-incineration | Yes | |
Gasification | No | |
Energy from the sea *** | Currents | No |
Tidal energy | Yes | |
Wind power | Terrestrial (horizontal or vertical axis) | Yes |
Maritime | No | |
Geothermal | Power generation | No |
Air conditioning (closed loop or open loop) | Yes | |
Hydroelectric | Mini-hydraulic | Yes |
Photovoltaic solar energy | Photovoltaic (terraces or facades) | Yes |
Solar thermal | Solar thermal | Yes |
Thermoelectric solar | Parabolic cylinder | No |
Central receiver | No | |
Linear Fresnel collectors | No | |
Parabolic Stirling dishes | No |
System | City | Potential * | Demand | Use | Reference | Objective of the Study |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bioethanol | Tartu (Estonia) | 93% | 1.29 million liters of diesel 0.14 tons of natural gas | Fuel for transport | [59] | Shows that the urban vegetable waste from green areas and gardens can be used to produce biofuels. |
Urban areas of (China) | 12.6% | 42,334 million liters of petrol | [60] | Determines the energy potential of the waste of gardens for production of ethanol. | ||
Biomass | Leicester (England) | 3.3% | ----- | Thermal | [61] | Investigates the potential for using biomass harvested in the city for thermal purposes. |
Mar del Plata (Argentina) | 4.36% | 1265 GWh/year | Electric | [62] | Determines the energy potential of forest and agricultural waste. | |
3.32% | 2912 GWh/year | Thermal | ||||
Beijing (China) | 80% | 9501 GWh/year | Electric | [60] | Determines the energy potential of the waste of urban gardens. | |
Jiangsu (China) | 51% | 14,617 GWh/year | ||||
Qinghai (China) | 10% | 915 GWh/year | ||||
Biogas | Stockholm (Switzerland) | 12% | 8300 kWh/per capita/year | Thermal | [20] | Explores the integration of renewable infrastructure to reduce the metabolic fluxes of a district. |
Oakland (United States) | 120% | 55 GWh/year | Electric | [63] | Examines the use of the technology of anaerobic digestion in the wastewater treatment plants in the United States. | |
Mexicali (Mexico) | 6% | The percentage is compared with the requirement of lighting | Electric | [64] | Determines the waste from landfills. | |
Tijuana (Mexico) | 40% | |||||
Cities in Brazil | 100% | 107 buses | Fuel for buses | [65] | Determines the number of urban transport vehicles that can be fueled with landfill gas in Brazil. | |
São Paulo (Brazil) | 7.30% | 8723.6 GWh/year | Landfill biogas | [66] | Performs an analysis of the technical potential for the production of electricity using urban solid waste. | |
Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) | 6.73% | 5481 GWh/year | ||||
Tartu (Estonia) | 54.5% | 1.29 million liters of diesel 0.14 tons of natural gas | Fuel for transport | [59] | The biogas potential of greening waste was calculated. | |
Incineration | Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) | 25.03% | 8723.6 GWh/year | Solid urban waste incineration | [66] | Performs an analysis of the technical potential for the production of electricity using urban solid waste. |
12.44% | 5481 GWh/year | Incineration of waste-derived fuel | ||||
Stockholm (Switzerland) | 12% | 8300 kWh/per capita/year | Incineration | [20] | Explores the integration of renewable infrastructure to reduce the metabolic fluxes of a district. | |
Changchun City (China) | 29.29% | 837.15 GWh/year | Incineration | [67] | This study explores the energy potentials of urban solid wastes. | |
Wind Power | Wageningen (The Netherlands) | 43% | 450 MWh/ha year | Electric | [9] | Investigates the potential of a city to provide its own energy resources. |
Geothermal energy | Westminster (England) | 100% | ≈49,000 buildings ≈63,000 buildings | Thermal | [68] | Presents a model for examining the feasibility of installing geothermal energy in the city. |
Ludwigsburg (Germany) | 68.69% | 873.5 GWh | Thermal | [69] | Develops a model to determine the potential of geothermal energy. | |
Cities in Finland | 25% | 1.3 million m2 of standard housing units | Thermal | [70] | Investigates geothermal potential to provide heating to buildings. | |
45% | 1.7 million m2 of housing of low power consumption | |||||
Hydropower | Beppu (Japan) | 100% | 29,000 dwellings with consumption of 300 kWh/month | Electric | [71] | Investigates the potential for hydroelectric generation using plants placed in rivers crossing a city. |
Photovoltaic | Ostfildern (Germany) | 45% | 10,700 MWh/year | Electric | [53] | Analyses the performance of renewable energies in urban environments. |
Ludwigsword (Germany) | 18% | 430,000 MWh/year | ||||
Munich (Germany) | 100% | 20 KWh/m2 | [72] | Assesses the photovoltaic energy potential depending on the design of the building. | ||
Wageningen (The Netherlands) | 50% 66% | 45 KWh/m2 year | [9] | Investigates the potential of a city to obtain its own energy resources. | ||
Kerkrade (The Netherlands) | 18% | 481,001 MWh/year | [35] | Proposes a method to identify the energy that can be leveraged within the city. | ||
Karlsruhe (Germany) | 9.5% ** | 410 GWh/year | [57] | Uses a method that calculates the economic potential of photovoltaic roofs and facades. | ||
Zernez (Switzerland) | 64% | 7.4 GWh/year | [73] | Develops a framework for the optimal integration of photovoltaic energy in a villa. | ||
Cities of (Nepal) | 100% | 1228 GWh | [74] | Evaluates the feasibility of producing electricity with photovoltaic panels to supply the demand not covered. | ||
Dhaka (Bangladesh) | 15% | 773.41 GWh/year | [75] | Discusses the available area of roofs and the energy system is modelled to determine the potential of solar energy. | ||
Mexico (urban residential areas) | 45.6% | 29,088 GWh/year | Water heating | [76] | Assesses the potential for solar water heating. | |
Solar Thermal | Spain (8005 municipalities) | 68.4% | 28,249 GWh/year | Water heating | [77] | Determines the surface of roofs available for the placement of thermal solar panels. |
Concepción-Chile (recent 3233 housing) | 75% | 19,788.7 MW | [78] | Determines the slope with best qualification by housing according to orientation and inclination, compares feasible joint production universe of study to typical demands. |
Sector | R & D | D | C | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Biofuels second generation | X | X | [118,119,120] | |
Biogas from wastewater | X | [63,121,122] | ||
Biomass | X | [62] | ||
Biogas landfill | X | [66] | ||
Incineration | X | [66] | ||
Hydroelectric | X | [123] | ||
Small wind | X | X | [117] | |
Photovoltaic | X | [50] | ||
Solar thermal | X | [124,125,126] | ||
Geothermal | X | [50,69,127] | ||
Tidal | X | [50] |
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Barragán-Escandón, A.; Terrados-Cepeda, J.; Zalamea-León, E. The Role of Renewable Energy in the Promotion of Circular Urban Metabolism. Sustainability 2017, 9, 2341. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122341
Barragán-Escandón A, Terrados-Cepeda J, Zalamea-León E. The Role of Renewable Energy in the Promotion of Circular Urban Metabolism. Sustainability. 2017; 9(12):2341. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122341
Chicago/Turabian StyleBarragán-Escandón, Antonio, Julio Terrados-Cepeda, and Esteban Zalamea-León. 2017. "The Role of Renewable Energy in the Promotion of Circular Urban Metabolism" Sustainability 9, no. 12: 2341. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122341