Blood Glucose Level Monitoring Using an FMCW Millimeter-Wave Radar Sensor
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Why mm-Wave Sensing?
2.1. Spectroscopy Dielectric Measurements of Glucose Using DAK-TL
2.2. PNA Scattering Analysis for Clinical Blood Samples in the Frequency Range (50–67 GHz)
3. Proposed Low-Cost Sensor
3.1. Working Principle of the Proposed Radar System
3.2. Radar Experimental Approach for Glucose Detection
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Device/Company | Technique | Placement | Needs | Attributes |
---|---|---|---|---|
NovioSense (Noviosense BV) [32] | Electrochemical enzymatic-based tear analysis | Lower eye lid (inferior conjunctival fornix) | Continuous monitoring provided a sample | Compact, painless, flexible, wireless power, smartphone connected for data analysis |
Smart Contact Lens (Novartis & Google) [33] | Electrochemical enzymatic-based tear analysis | Eye | Continuous monitoring provided a sample | Painless, power efficient, portable, low relief, hazardous when overheated, withdrawn from market! |
iQuicklt Saliva Analyzer (Quick LLC) [34] | Saliva analysis | Saliva of the mouth | Intermittent monitoring provided a sample | Portable, convenient to use, accurate, time efficient (real-time readings), under development and clinical trials |
TensorTip Combo Glucometer (Cnoga Medical) [35] | Photometric and photography-based techniques | Fingertip | Intermittent monitoring without a sample | Convenient to use, accurate when calibrated on individual-basis, smartphone compatible, battery operated (rechargeable), cost-effective, certified! |
Glucosense (Glucosense Diagnostic Ltd.) [36] | Low-powered laser sensors that use photonic technology (infrared light) | Fingertip | Intermittent monitoring without a sample | Convenient to use, portable, affordable, power-efficient, time efficient (30 s), under development! |
Groves’s Device (Groves Instrument Inc) [37] | NIR spectroscopy | Fingertip or earlobe | Intermittent monitoring without a sample | Fast processed readings, time-efficient (20 s), compact, portable, uses capillary-level blood, less accurate due lacking subjective calibration |
GlucoTrack (Integrity Applications) [38] | Thermal, ultrasonic, and microwave EM technology | Earlobe | Intermittent monitoring without a sample | Affordable, convenient to use, high accuracy due earlobe placement, unit-connected for results processing/display, complex processing, FDA approved! |
GlucoWise (MediWise) [39,40] | RF/Microwave | Amid fingers (thumb and forefinger) | Intermittent monitoring without a sample | Convenient to use, affordable, accurate, Bluetooth-based data transmission, compact, integrable with insulin pumps, uses capillary-level blood, time-efficient, fast readings (10 s), hurtful due localized energy usage, under development! |
Ref | Technique | Main Items | Sensing Parameter | Pros | Cons |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[41] | OCT | Light source + coupler + interferometer | OCT slope | - Good resolution images with high SNR | - Affected by pressure and temperature - Compromise between resolution and penetration depth -Time consuming for glucose estimation |
[42] | Optical/thermal spectroscopy + photoacoustic | Microphone + laser diode | Change in optical absorption coefficient and pressure | - Compact size - Improved sensitivity | - Affected by pressure and temperature |
[43] | NIR + PPG + ANN | Photo diode + LED | Difference in optical density | - Reduced cost - Fast FPGA implementation -Good accuracy | - PPG is affected by noise, motion, fatty tissues - Increased complex processing -Time consuming -Filtering overhead |
[44] | Photoacoustic + NIR + MEMS | IR + ultrasonic micro-electro-micro mechanical (MEMS) sensors | Acoustic pressure and absorption | - Compact size - Efficient power - Accurate and sensitive - Deep penetration in ear lobe area | - Affected by pressure, temperature, and humidity - Performance dependency on surface |
[45] | NIR + photoacoustic | Piezoelectric sensor + pulsed laser diode (PLD) | Change in pressure (Photoacoustic amplitude) | - Good sensitivity - Limited scattering - User friendly | - Nonuniform absorption Affected by pressure and temperature -Time consuming -Power inefficient |
[46] | NIR | Thermal/laser sensors + spectroscope | Change in power output of the transmitted light beam | - Not expensive - Harmless | - Data limitation - Less accurate |
[47] | ECG + ML | Compumedics ECG leads | Heart rate and QT interval | - Fast processing - Converged computation - Detecting hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia | - ECG signal parameters possibly affected by abnormal heart condition (e.g., arrhythmia) |
[48] | RF/Microwave | Microstrip patch antenna (spiral) | Shift in resonance frequency | - Compact size - Affordable cost - High Q-factor | - Affected by noises in atmosphere - Not validated for glucose sensing using real measurements - Loss parameters not considered in simulation |
[49] | RF/Microwave | PNA + antenna + Cole-Cole model | Shift in resonant frequency | - Good correlation with glucometer when calibrated | - Affected by environmental changes (sweat, temperature, pressure, etc.) - Subject-based calibration |
[50] | RF/Microwave | Microstrip patch antenna (triangular) | Shift in resonance frequency | - Cost effective - Miniaturized size - Linear | - Not demonstrated for different glucose levels detection |
[51] | RF/Microwave | Patch resonator | Changes in input impedance | - Miniaturized size - Good sensitivity - Tested on wideband tissue mimicking phantom | - Large error margin - Phantom simulated with non-dispersive dielectric properties |
[39] | Millimeter-wave Antenna | Two patch antennas (Glucowise) | Changes in transmission coefficient S21 | - Portable - Less susceptible by interference | - Possible harmful effects due localized energy |
[52] | RF/Microwave | Planar ring resonator | Shift in resonant frequency | - Compact size - Accurate (Resonant-based) | - Affected by environment status - Low sensitivity - Tested on impractical glucose ranges |
Targeted concentration for the prepared sample (mg/mL) | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 3.5 |
Measured concentration using glucometer (mg/mL) | 0.5 | 1.06 | 1.63 | 2.16 | 2.79 | 3.15 | 3.32 |
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Omer, A.E.; Safavi-Naeini, S.; Hughson, R.; Shaker, G. Blood Glucose Level Monitoring Using an FMCW Millimeter-Wave Radar Sensor. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 385. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030385
Omer AE, Safavi-Naeini S, Hughson R, Shaker G. Blood Glucose Level Monitoring Using an FMCW Millimeter-Wave Radar Sensor. Remote Sensing. 2020; 12(3):385. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030385
Chicago/Turabian StyleOmer, Ala Eldin, Safieddin Safavi-Naeini, Richard Hughson, and George Shaker. 2020. "Blood Glucose Level Monitoring Using an FMCW Millimeter-Wave Radar Sensor" Remote Sensing 12, no. 3: 385. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030385