State of the Vietnamese Coast—Assessing Three Decades (1986 to 2021) of Coastline Dynamics Using the Landsat Archive
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data
2.2.1. Landsat Archive
2.2.2. Validation Data
2.2.3. Sea Level Data
2.3. Methods
2.3.1. Country-Scale Processing of Annual Water Index Images
2.3.2. Sub-Pixel Coastline Extraction
2.3.3. Shore-Normal Transect Generation
2.3.4. Coastline Change Quantification
2.3.5. Validation
3. Results
3.1. Coastline Detection
3.2. Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Coastline Change in Vietnam
3.3. Validation
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations of the Landsat-based Coastline Detection Method
4.2. Limitations of the Coastline Change Quantification
4.3. Potential Drivers of Coastline Change at Selected Hotspots
4.3.1. Erosion Hotspot in the Mekong Delta
4.3.2. Erosion Hotspot in the Red River Delta
4.3.3. Accretion Hotspot in Haiphong City
4.3.4. Accretion Hotspot at Haiphong Port
4.3.5. Stable Coastline in Da Nang
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Satellite | Tile ID | Date | Acquisition Time [UTC] | Cloud Cover [%] | Processing Level |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
RE1 | 4946401 | 7 February 2017 | 03:51:05 | 0 | 3A |
RE1 | 4946402 | 7 February 2017 | 03:51:04 | 0 | 3A |
RE1 | 4946403 | 7 February 2017 | 03:51:03 | 1 | 3A |
RE1 | 4946501 | 7 February 2017 | 03:51:02 | 0 | 3A |
RE1 | 4946502 | 7 February 2017 | 03:51:01 | 0 | 3A |
RE1 | 4946503 | 7 February 2017 | 03:51:00 | 0 | 3A |
LC8 | 124049 | 7 February 2017 | 03:06:27 | 0 | T1 L2 |
Class | Change Rates [m/Year] |
---|---|
Extreme accretion | >5 |
Severe accretion | 5 to 3 |
Intense accretion | 3 to 1 |
Moderate accretion | 1 to 0.5 |
Stable | 0.5 to −0.5 |
Moderate erosion | −0.5 to −1 |
Intense erosion | −1 to −3 |
Severe erosion | −3 to −5 |
Intense erosion | <−5 |
Classification L1 [m/Year] | Proportion [%] | Classification L2 [m/Year] | Proportion [%] |
---|---|---|---|
Stable (0.5 to −0.5) | 45.2 | ||
Erosion (<−0.5) | 27.7 | Extreme erosion (<−5) | 39.2 |
Severe erosion (−3 to −5) | 9.6 | ||
Intense erosion (−3 to −1) | 22.0 | ||
Moderate erosion (−1 to −0.5) | 29.3 | ||
Accretion (>0.5) | 27.1 | Extreme accretion (>5) | 49.5 |
Severe accretion (5 to 3) | 9.3 | ||
Intense accretion (3 to 1) | 23.7 | ||
Moderate accretion (1 to 0.5) | 17.5 |
No. | Length [m] | Mean Change Rate [m/year] | Mean Standard Error [m] | Province |
---|---|---|---|---|
0b | 39,400 | 34.4 | 4.9 | Thai Binh/Hai Phong City |
1b | 32,000 | 22.6 | 3.3 | Soc Trang |
2b | 22,600 | 39.0 | 3.3 | Ca Mau |
3b | 20,400 | 23.5 | 1.9 | Soc Trang/Tra Vinh |
4b | 17,200 | 8.6 | 2.5 | Bac Lieu |
5b | 16,200 | 47.3 | 6.9 | Thanh Hoa/Ninh Binh |
6b | 15,800 | 36.8 | 3.2 | Quang Ninh |
7b | 14,600 | 11.4 | 1.6 | Kien Giang |
8b | 14,200 | 14.8 | 1.0 | Kien Giang |
9b | 12,600 | 25.3 | 2.5 | Quang Ninh |
10b | 12,000 | 15.2 | 1.7 | Quang Ninh |
11b | 11,800 | 10.2 | 1.8 | Tra Vinh |
12b | 11,400 | 21.1 | 2.5 | Quang Ninh |
13b | 9400 | 15.3 | 2.4 | Da Nang City |
14b | 9400 | 13.0 | 5.8 | Quang Ninh |
15b | 9400 | 5.1 | 0.5 | Kien Giang |
16b | 9400 | 11.5 | 3.7 | Nam Dinh |
17b | 8800 | 15.6 | 3.7 | Nam Dinh |
18b | 7600 | 7.9 | 2.2 | Quang Ninh |
19b | 7200 | 6.7 | 1.3 | Kien Gang |
20b | 6800 | 24.9 | 3.6 | Ben Tre |
21b | 6400 | 28.9 | 4.1 | Ben Tre |
22b | 6200 | 20.1 | 5.2 | Thai Binh |
23b | 6200 | 6.1 | 0.3 | Kien Giang |
24b | 6000 | 12.3 | 3.2 | Quang Ninh |
25b | 6000 | 51.5 | 13.9 | Hai Phong City/Quang Ninh |
26b | 6000 | 6.8 | 0.8 | Tra Vinh |
27b | 6000 | 11.0 | 4.8 | Quang Ninh |
28b | 6000 | 21.4 | 8.2 | Nam Dinh |
29b | 5800 | 6.5 | 0.9 | Quang Ninh |
30b | 5000 | 21.8 | 3.9 | Ha Tinh |
31b | 4800 | 8.8 | 1.2 | Hai Phong City |
32b | 4400 | 9.5 | 1.7 | Khanh Hoa |
33b | 4400 | 10.9 | 1.7 | Hai Phong City |
34b | 4400 | 25.1 | 2.8 | Kien Giang |
35b | 4200 | 19.2 | 2.0 | Tien Giang |
36b | 4200 | 6.1 | 1.0 | Binh Thuan |
No. | Length [m] | Mean Change Rate [m/year] | Mean Standard Error [m] | Province |
---|---|---|---|---|
0a | 101,600 | −25.1 | 1.0 | Ca Mau/Bac Lieu |
1a | 82,200 | −10.7 | 0.8 | Kien Giang/Ca Mau |
2a | 14,200 | −13.2 | 0.5 | Ben Tre |
3a | 13,600 | −7.7 | 0.4 | Tien Giang |
4a | 13,400 | −16.7 | 2.3 | Bac Lieu/Soc Trang |
5a | 12,600 | −7.8 | 1.6 | Bac Lieu/Soc Trang |
6a | 12,000 | −9.5 | 1.2 | Kien Giang |
7a | 12,000 | −5.7 | 0.6 | Tra Vinh |
8a | 10,800 | −5.3 | 1.0 | Nam Dinh |
9a | 9200 | −5.9 | 1.6 | Bac Lieu |
10a | 9000 | −6.2 | 1.5 | Quang Nam |
11a | 8800 | −10.9 | 0.5 | Soc Trang |
12a | 8400 | −18.5 | 1.2 | Tien Giang/Ben Tre |
13a | 7800 | −7.1 | 1.2 | Ba Ria/Vung Tau |
14a | 7200 | −9.5 | 4.4 | Quang Ninh |
15a | 6800 | −27.7 | 2.4 | Nam Dinh |
16a | 6600 | −22.3 | 2.3 | Nam Dinh |
17a | 6400 | −15.7 | 7.2 | Quang Ninh |
18a | 5400 | −8.4 | 0.8 | Nam Dinh |
19a | 5400 | −6.3 | 2.7 | Thai Binh |
20a | 4200 | −8.5 | 2.4 | Quang Ninh |
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Lappe, R.; Ullmann, T.; Bachofer, F. State of the Vietnamese Coast—Assessing Three Decades (1986 to 2021) of Coastline Dynamics Using the Landsat Archive. Remote Sens. 2022, 14, 2476. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14102476
Lappe R, Ullmann T, Bachofer F. State of the Vietnamese Coast—Assessing Three Decades (1986 to 2021) of Coastline Dynamics Using the Landsat Archive. Remote Sensing. 2022; 14(10):2476. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14102476
Chicago/Turabian StyleLappe, Ronja, Tobias Ullmann, and Felix Bachofer. 2022. "State of the Vietnamese Coast—Assessing Three Decades (1986 to 2021) of Coastline Dynamics Using the Landsat Archive" Remote Sensing 14, no. 10: 2476. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14102476