True2 Orthoimage Map Generation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Related Works
3. Principles of True2 Orthoimage Map (T2OM) Generation
- (1)
- DBM-based single-building T2OM generation, which consists of orthorectifying both the building roof and building facades: a concept, named “superpixel” is proposed the for storage of building texture, building ID, etc. information.
- (2)
- DBM-based multiple-building T2OM generation: merging the DBM-based single-building T2OM, including organization of the building ID, building façade, building corner coordinates, etc.
- (3)
- DTM-based T2OM generation for the orthorectification of gentle and continuously elevated hilly areas.
- (4)
- DTM- and DBM-based T2OM merging, which is for merging DTM- and DBM-based T2OM for the creation of an entire T2OM.
3.1. Generation of a DBM-Based Single-Building T2OM
- (1)
- Determining the size of the T2OM: The resulting DBM-based single-building T2OM is expressed as a raster image with pixels arranged in rows and columns. Since the resulting orthoimage is orthorectified from raster image input (called original image) using the DBM data, the size of the output image is defined [9] as
- (2)
- Computing the X, Y coordinate of each pixel: In Figure 2, P (I, J) is a given point pixel on the roof of the T2OM building roof, and their raster rows and columns can be transformed to the coordinates of the output T2OM, i.e.,
- (3)
- Computing the Z coordinate of P (I, J): In order to perform orthorectification, we also need to know the Z coordinates of the pixel P (I, J) in the output roof T2OM and this is obtained from DBM. However, DBM data only have vector coordinates at corner points. Therefore, it is necessary to interpolate an elevation to the roof pixel of the building. As shown in Figure 3, the elevation (height) is obtained only for pixels with corner points (blue pixels in Figure 3), while the other pixels (orange in Figure 3) are calculated by:
- (4)
- Computing the corresponding coordinate in the original image: In order to orthorectify the source image, the corresponding coordinate of the source image pixel in the output image is calculated by:
- (5)
- Assigning the gray value to pixels: Since the grid of pixels in the source image rarely matches the grid of the output orthoimage, a re-sampling of the pixels has to be performed in order to assign gray value to the pixels in the output image. The nearest neighbor is employed because it directly transfers the original data values without averaging them. The computational procedure is illustrated in Figure 2.
- (6)
- Storing the data for DBM-based building roof T2OM: As can be seen from the above, T2OM needs to store more information than the traditional TOM does, such as building roof texture, facade texture, and façade Z coordinates. For this reason, “superpixel” is presented and has the following characteristics (see Figure 4): (1) it inherits the original image gray information; (2) the gray value, elevation, building ID, and facade texture index ID are stored; (3) each pixel coordinate is directly interconnected with the building ID and façade texture ID.
- (1)
- G (I, J) stands for storage of the gray at i-th row and j-th column in the image coordinate system whose value is 0–255.
- (2)
- S (I, J) stands for storage of the building corner coordinate subdivision grid identification value, which occupies 8 bits. That is, by dividing a single pixel into 256 subdivision sequences, the accuracy of vector to grid data conversion is improved. For a given point P (XP, YP), this can be expressed as (ip, jp) after the conversion of the vector to the grid. The lost information is . With this information, Sx can be calculated through Equation (8).
- (3)
- H (I, J) stands for the storage of the building height or DTM height with a floating format.
- (4)
- ID stands for the storage of building ID. An ID can be used to call for the facade texture. A large city may have hundreds of buildings; therefore, 12 bits are designed to store 0 to 4095 buildings.
3.2. Generation for DBM-Based Multiple-Building T2OMs
3.3. Generation of DTM-Based T2OM
3.4. Merging DTM- and DBM-Based T2OMs
4. Experiments and Analysis
4.1. Metadata of T2OM
4.2. T2OM Generation
4.2.1. Experimental Result with Dataset 1
- (1)
- DTM data: Figure 11a shows DTM data from Denver, CO, USA, which is represented as a height–depth map, where the darker the color is, the lower the height, and vice versa, because the topography of the city is relatively flat. Thus, the elevations shown on the ground are relatively similar (the colors shown are similar). The accuracy of plane surface coordinates and vertical coordinates are about 0.1 m and 0.2 m, respectively. The horizontal datum is GRS 1980, and the vertical datum is NAD83.
- (2)
- Aerial Image data: Figure 11b shows the original aerial image acquired using the RC30 aerial camera lens in Denver. The flight altitude in Denver is 1650 m higher than the mean ground elevation of the imaged area. Aerial photographs were initially recorded on film and then scanned into digital format at a pixel resolution of 25 μm.
- (3)
- DBM data: Figure 11c shows Denver DBM data, and these buildings with a ground resolution of about 25.4 cm per pixel were identified. Each building model contains building corner point information and elevation texture information.
- (1)
- DBM-based building roof orthorectification
- (2)
- DBM-based building façade orthorectification
4.2.2. Experimental Result with Dataset 2
- (1)
- DTM data: Figure 16a shows DTM data from Nanning, China, represented as a height–depth map, where the darker the color is, the lower the height, and vice versa, because the topography of the city is relatively flat. Thus, the elevations shown on the ground are relatively similar (the colors shown are similar). The accuracy of the plane surface coordinates and vertical coordinates are about 0.1 m and 0.2 m, respectively. The horizontal datum is GRS 1980, and the vertical datum is NAD83.
- (2)
- Aerial Image data: Figure 16b shows the original aerial image acquired using the CMOS lens in Nanning. The flight altitude in Nanning is 200 m higher than the average ground elevation of the imaging area.
- (3)
- DBM data: Figure 16c shows Nanning DBM data, and buildings with a ground resolution of about 25.4 cm per pixel were identified. Each building model contains building corner point information and elevation texture information.
- (1)
- DBM-based building roof orthorectification
- (2)
- DBM-based building façade orthorectification
4.2.3. T2OM 3D Measurement
4.3. Accuracy Evaluation and Analysis
4.4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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DBM-Based Pixel | Row | Column | Gray Value | Sub Ordinal | Height | BuildingID |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BP1 | I(BP1) | J(BP1) | G1 | id(BP1) (r,c) | h(BP1) | B1 |
BP2 | I(BP2) | J(BP2) | G2 | 0 | h(BP2) | B1 |
… | … | … | … | … | … | … |
BPi | I(BPi) | J(BPi) | Gi | id(BPi) (r,c) | h(BPi) | B1 |
BPi + 1 | I(BPi + 1) | J(BPi + 1) | Gi + 1 | 0 | h(BPi+1) | B1 |
… | … | … | … | … | … | …. |
Pixel | Gray (8 bit) | Hight (H, 12 bit) | TextureID (TID, 12 bit) | Notes | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 11000110 | 000100000010 | 000001000001 | Gray = 198 | | Wall 1 H = 25.8 TID = 65 |
2 | 11010011 | 000100000010 | 000001000001 | Gray = 211 | ||
3 | 11010000 | 000100000010 | 000001000001 | Gray = 208 | ||
… | … | … | … | … | ||
8 | 11010011 | 000100000010 | 000001000001 | Gray = 211 | ||
9 | 11001000 | 000100000010 | 000001000010 | Gray = 200 | | Wall 2 H = 25.8 TID = 66 |
10 | 11101000 | 000100000010 | 000001000010 | Gray = 232 | ||
… | … | … | … | … | ||
18 | 11011101 | 000100000010 | 000001000010 | Gray = 221 | ||
19 | 11011101 | 000100000010 | 000001000011 | Gray = 221 | | Wall 3 H = 25.8 TID = 67 |
20 | 11011000 | 000100000010 | 000001000011 | Gray = 216 | ||
… | … | … | … | … | ||
27 | 11011000 | 000100000010 | 000001000011 | Gray = 216 | ||
28 | 11010001 | 000100000010 | 000001000100 | Gray = 209 | | Wall 4 H = 25.8 TID = 68 |
29 | 11011010 | 000100000010 | 000001000100 | Gray = 218 | ||
… | … | … | … | … | ||
37 | 11011010 | 000100000010 | 000001000100 | Gray = 218 |
Pixel | Gray (8 bit) | Hight (H, 12 bit) | TextureID (TID, 12 bit) | Notes | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 11010101 | 000111010000 | 001100101001 | Gray = 213 | | Wall 1 H = 46.4 TID = 809 |
2 | 11111101 | 000111010000 | 001100101001 | Gray = 253 | ||
3 | 11110001 | 000111010000 | 001100101001 | Gray = 241 | ||
… | … | … | … | … | ||
9 | 11010100 | 000111010000 | 001100101001 | Gray = 212 | ||
10 | 11010111 | 000111010000 | 001100101010 | Gray = 215 | | Wall 2 H = 46.4 TID = 810 |
11 | 11010101 | 000111010000 | 001100101010 | Gray = 213 | ||
… | … | … | … | … | ||
22 | 11010101 | 000111010000 | 001100101010 | Gray = 213 | ||
23 | 11011111 | 000111010000 | 001100101011 | Gray = 223 | | Wall 3 H = 46.4 TID = 811 |
24 | 11010111 | 000111010000 | 001100101011 | Gray = 215 | ||
… | … | … | … | … | ||
30 | 11010111 | 000111010000 | 001100101011 | Gray = 215 | ||
31 | 11010101 | 000111010000 | 001100101100 | Gray = 213 | | Wall 4 H = 46.4 TID = 812 |
32 | 11010111 | 000111010000 | 001100101100 | Gray = 215 | ||
… | … | … | … | … | ||
47 | 11010101 | 000111010000 | 001100101100 | Gray = 213 |
WallID | Wall Pixel Index | Texture Index | Hight |
---|---|---|---|
a1b1 | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 | 65 | 25.8 |
b1c1 | 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 | 66 | 25.8 |
c1d1 | 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 | 67 | 25.8 |
d1a1 | 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 | 68 | 25.8 |
WallID | Wall Pixel Index | Texture Index | Hight |
---|---|---|---|
a2b2 | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 | 809 | 46.4 |
b2c2 | 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 | 810 | 46.4 |
c2d2 | 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 | 811 | 46.4 |
d2a2 | 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47 | 812 | 46.4 |
BuildingID | Type | RoofID | WallID | Properties | Others |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
B1 | Volume | R11 | W11, W12, W13… | Brick structure | … |
B2 | Volume | R12 | W21, W22, W23… | reinforced concrete structure | … |
B3 | Volume | R13 | W31, W32, W33… | steel structure | … |
… | … | … | … | … | … |
RoofID | Type | TextureID | PointID | Others |
---|---|---|---|---|
R11 | Polygon | TR11 | PR11, PR12, PR13… | … |
R12 | Polygon | TR12 | PR21, PR22, PR23… | … |
R13 | Polygon | TR13 | PR31, PR32, PR33… | … |
… | … | … | … | … |
WallID | Type | TextureID | PointID | Others |
---|---|---|---|---|
W11 | Polygon | TW11 | Pw11, Pw12, Pw13… | … |
W12 | Polygon | TW12 | Pw21, Pw22, Pw23… | … |
W13 | Polygon | TW13 | Pw31, Pw32, Pw33… | … |
… | … | … | … | … |
PointID | X, Y, Z Coord. | Pixel Coord. | Others | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pw11 | XW11 | YW11 | ZW11 | IW11 | JW11 | … |
Pw12 | XW12 | YW12 | ZW12 | IW12 | JW12 | … |
Pw13 | XW13 | YW13 | ZW13 | IW13 | JW13 | … |
… | … | … | … | … | … | … |
PR11 | XR11 | YR11 | ZR11 | IR11 | JR11 | … |
PR12 | XR12 | YR12 | ZR12 | IR12 | JR12 | … |
PR13 | XR13 | YR13 | ZR13 | IR13 | JR13 | … |
… | … | … | … | … | … | … |
TextureD | TextureName | FileAddress | Date | Fomat | Others |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
TW11 | WTN11 | WFA11 | WD11 | WF11 | … |
TW12 | WTN12 | WFA12 | WD12 | WF12 | … |
TW13 | WTN13 | WFA13 | WD13 | WF13 | … |
… | … | … | … | … | … |
TR11 | PTN11 | PFA11 | PD11 | PF11 | … |
TR12 | PTN12 | PFA12 | PD12 | PF12 | … |
TR13 | PTN13 | PFA13 | PD13 | PF13 | … |
… | … | … | … | … | … |
File Section | Properties | Description |
---|---|---|
File flag block | m_FileProperty | Identifier “fus” (char type) |
m_Version | Version number (int type) | |
Image header information | m_UpleftCoordinateX | Image coordinate lower right X value (double type, units: meters) |
m_UpleftCoordinateY | Image coordinate lower right Y value (double type, units: meters) | |
m_TMaxZ | The highest point in the DTM file (double type, in meters) | |
m_TMinZ | The lowest point in the DTM file (double type, in meters) | |
m_BMaxZ | Maximum building height in DBM (double type in meters) | |
m_BMinZ | Minimum building height in DBM (double type in meters) | |
m_IntervalX | Unit interval in X-axis direction (double type in meters) | |
m_IntervalY | Unit interval in Y-axis direction (double type, units: meters) | |
m_FileHigh | Image height (int type) | |
m_FileWidth | Image width (int type) | |
Z_Tresolution | Topographic data unit elevation level (double type, units: meters) | |
Z_Bresolution | Building data unit elevation level (type double, in meters) | |
Build_Num | Number of building objects elements (type int) | |
Image Pixels Information | T2OM_Grey | Pixel grey component (unsigned char type) |
T2OM_Ordinal | Subdivision grid order (unsigned char type) | |
T2OM_Height | Elevation level high 8 bits (unsigned char type) | |
T2OM_HI | Elevation level low 4 bits, logo high 4 bits (unsigned char type) | |
T2OM_Index | Marker data low 8 bits (unsigned char type) |
Building | Xori | Yori | Zori | id(r,c) | h | Xbc | Ybc | Zbc |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | 1286.850 | 1306.000 | 5551.700 | 14 | 1973 | 1286.840 | 1306.030 | 5551.600 |
1346.850 | 1245.000 | 5551.700 | 14 | 1973 | 1346.840 | 1245.030 | 5551.600 | |
1355.000 | 1237.975 | 5551.700 | 241 | 1973 | 1355.030 | 1237.970 | 5551.600 | |
1356.000 | 1237.850 | 5551.700 | 209 | 1973 | 1356.030 | 1237.840 | 5551.600 | |
b | 1931.937 | 1424.000 | 5533.400 | 15 | 1876 | 1931.910 | 1424.030 | 5533.330 |
1932.150 | 1440.000 | 5533.400 | 3 | 1876 | 1932.160 | 1440.030 | 5533.330 | |
1910.850 | 1462.000 | 5533.400 | 14 | 1876 | 1910.840 | 1462.030 | 5533.330 | |
1906.000 | 1464.150 | 5533.400 | 33 | 1876 | 1906.030 | 1464.160 | 5533.330 | |
c | 2990.850 | 1244.000 | 5462.500 | 14 | 1499 | 2990.840 | 1244.030 | 5462.330 |
2912.850 | 1151.000 | 5462.500 | 14 | 1499 | 2912.840 | 1151.030 | 5462.330 | |
2911.850 | 1148.000 | 5462.500 | 14 | 1499 | 2911.840 | 1148.030 | 5462.330 | |
2964.850 | 1093.000 | 5462.500 | 14 | 1499 | 2964.840 | 1093.030 | 5462.330 | |
d | 3339.000 | 1882.850 | 5755.800 | 209 | 3057 | 3339.030 | 1882.840 | 5755.760 |
3341.096 | 1883.000 | 5755.800 | 2 | 3057 | 3341.090 | 1883.030 | 5755.760 | |
3344.850 | 1881.000 | 5755.800 | 14 | 3057 | 3344.840 | 1881.030 | 5755.760 | |
3356.054 | 1864.000 | 5755.800 | 1 | 3057 | 3356.030 | 1864.030 | 5755.760 |
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Zhou, G.; Wang, Q.; Huang, Y.; Tian, J.; Li, H.; Wang, Y. True2 Orthoimage Map Generation. Remote Sens. 2022, 14, 4396. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14174396
Zhou G, Wang Q, Huang Y, Tian J, Li H, Wang Y. True2 Orthoimage Map Generation. Remote Sensing. 2022; 14(17):4396. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14174396
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhou, Guoqing, Qingyang Wang, Yongsheng Huang, Jin Tian, Haoran Li, and Yuefeng Wang. 2022. "True2 Orthoimage Map Generation" Remote Sensing 14, no. 17: 4396. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14174396