SAR and Optical Data Applied to Early-Season Mapping of Integrated Crop–Livestock Systems Using Deep and Machine Learning Algorithms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Sites
2.2. Field Data Collection
2.3. Remote Sensing Data Collection and Preprocessing
2.4. Multitemporal Segmentation
2.5. Machine and Deep Learning Algorithms
2.6. Results Evaluation
3. Results
3.1. Sensor Accuracy
3.2. Algorithm Accuracy
3.3. Early Season
3.4. Predictions
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sensor | Index | Equation | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Sentinel-2 | Normalized Difference Vegetation Index—NDVI |
(NIR − RED)/(NIR + RED) (NIR − REDEDGE)/(NIR + REDEDGE) (2.5 × NIR − RED)/(NIR + 6RED − 7.5BLUE) + 1) (REDEDGE/RED) (VH × 4)/(VH + VV) VH/VV | [44] |
Sentinel-2 | Normalized Difference Red Edge Index—NDRE | [45] | |
Sentinel-2 | Enhanced Vegetation Index—EVI | [46] | |
Sentinel-2 | RED EDGE 1 | [47] | |
Sentinel-1 | Radar Vegetation Index—RVI | [48] | |
Sentinel-1 | VH and VV ratio | [49] |
Study Site | Algorithm | Sensor | Time Window | F1 Score—Overall | Precision—ICLS | Recall—ICLS | F1 Score—ICLS |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RF | Sentinel—1 | Entire Season | 0.87 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.92 | |
RF | Sentinel—1 | Sep–Jun | 0.86 | 0.94 | 0.87 | 0.91 | |
RF | Sentinel—1 | Sep–Apr | 0.87 | 0.9 | 0.95 | 0.92 | |
RF | Sentinel—2 | Entire Season | 0.98 | 1.00 | 0.98 | 0.99 | |
RF | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Jun | 0.98 | 1.00 | 0.98 | 0.99 | |
RF | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Apr | 0.97 | 1.00 | 0.98 | 0.99 | |
LSTM | Sentinel—1 | Entire Season | 0.89 | 0.97 | 0.94 | 0.95 | |
LSTM | Sentinel—1 | Sep–Jun | 0.88 | 1.00 | 0.97 | 0.98 | |
SS1 | LSTM LSTM | Sentinel—1 Sentinel—2 | Sep–Apr Entire Season | 0.89 0.96 | 0.97 0.94 | 0.97 1.00 | 0.97 0.97 |
LSTM | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Jun | 0.97 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
LSTM | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Apr | 0.95 | 0.97 | 1.00 | 0.98 | |
TF | Sentinel—1 | Entire Season | 0.86 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
TF | Sentinel—1 | Sep–Jun | 0.85 | 0.97 | 0.94 | 0.95 | |
TF | Sentinel—1 | Sep–Apr | 0.86 | 0.96 | 0.87 | 0.92 | |
TF | Sentinel—2 | Entire Season | 0.96 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
TF | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Jun | 0.97 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
TF | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Apr | 0.95 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
RF | Sentinel—1 | Entire Season | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.92 | 0.96 | |
RF | Sentinel—1 | Sep–Jun | 0.99 | 1.00 | 0.83 | 0.91 | |
RF | Sentinel—1 | Sep–Apr | 0.99 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.92 | |
RF | Sentinel—2 | Entire Season | 0.98 | 0.9 | 0.75 | 0.82 | |
RF | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Jun | 0.99 | 0.92 | 1.00 | 0.96 | |
RF | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Apr | 0.99 | 1.00 | 0.83 | 0.91 | |
LSTM | Sentinel—1 | Entire Season | 0.99 | 0.91 | 0.83 | 0.87 | |
LSTM | Sentinel—1 | Sep–Jun | 0.98 | 0.83 | 0.83 | 0.83 | |
SS2 | LSTM LSTM | Sentinel—1 Sentinel—2 | Sep–Apr Entire Season | 0.98 0.98 | 0.82 0.91 | 0.75 0.83 | 0.78 0.87 |
LSTM | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Jun | 0.99 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.92 | |
LSTM | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Apr | 0.97 | 0.83 | 0.83 | 0.83 | |
TF | Sentinel—1 | Entire Season | 0.97 | 1.00 | 0.83 | 0.91 | |
TF | Sentinel—1 | Sep–Jun | 0.98 | 1.00 | 0.83 | 0.90 | |
TF | Sentinel—1 | Sep–Apr | 0.97 | 0.91 | 0.83 | 0.87 | |
TF | Sentinel—2 | Entire Season | 0.97 | 1.00 | 0.83 | 0.91 | |
TF | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Jun | 0.97 | 1.00 | 0.75 | 0.86 | |
TF | Sentinel—2 | Sep–Apr | 0.96 | 0.91 | 0.83 | 0.87 |
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Toro, A.P.S.G.D.D.; Bueno, I.T.; Werner, J.P.S.; Antunes, J.F.G.; Lamparelli, R.A.C.; Coutinho, A.C.; Esquerdo, J.C.D.M.; Magalhães, P.S.G.; Figueiredo, G.K.D.A. SAR and Optical Data Applied to Early-Season Mapping of Integrated Crop–Livestock Systems Using Deep and Machine Learning Algorithms. Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 1130. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15041130
Toro APSGDD, Bueno IT, Werner JPS, Antunes JFG, Lamparelli RAC, Coutinho AC, Esquerdo JCDM, Magalhães PSG, Figueiredo GKDA. SAR and Optical Data Applied to Early-Season Mapping of Integrated Crop–Livestock Systems Using Deep and Machine Learning Algorithms. Remote Sensing. 2023; 15(4):1130. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15041130
Chicago/Turabian StyleToro, Ana P. S. G. D. D., Inacio T. Bueno, João P. S. Werner, João F. G. Antunes, Rubens A. C. Lamparelli, Alexandre C. Coutinho, Júlio C. D. M. Esquerdo, Paulo S. G. Magalhães, and Gleyce K. D. A. Figueiredo. 2023. "SAR and Optical Data Applied to Early-Season Mapping of Integrated Crop–Livestock Systems Using Deep and Machine Learning Algorithms" Remote Sensing 15, no. 4: 1130. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15041130