3.3. Results from the Vertex70 Upgrades
The Vertex70, equipped with an LN2-cooled InSb detector, has the capability to extend the measurements to the mid-infrared (MIR) spectral region. This section focuses on the results of the measurements performed in the MIR spectral region. Furthermore, the developments that will make the Vertex70 spectrometer mobile and autonomous will be presented.
3.3.1. Formaldehyde (HCHO) Measurements Using the Vertex70 Spectrometer
Formaldehyde (HCHO) is an intermediate product of the degradation of many non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs). It has a lifetime of only a few hours and allows for constraining the NMVO emissions and understanding of the complex and still uncertain degradation mechanism of these NMVOCs [
21]. The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) exert a strong influence on the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere through their reactions with hydroxyl radical (OH) and nitrogen oxides (NO
x; nitric oxide (NO) + nitrogen dioxide (NO
2)). As a result of these reactions, ozone and secondary organic aerosols are produced, which affect air quality and the global climate. Measurement of HCHO columns from ground-based instrumentation has been crucial for the validation of satellite HCHO measurements and tropospheric chemistry models [
22]. A harmonized HCHO retrieval strategy has been developed in the past for the high-resolution (HR) spectrometers of the NDACC and used at all the NDACC sites and at some TCCON sites equipped with an InSb detector (Vigouroux et al., 2018 [
22]). The use of harmonized retrieval parameters among the network (same spectral micro-windows, same spectroscopy, …) ensures a good consistency of the HCHO FTIR datasets, which have therefore been used with success for the TROPOMI validation (Vigouroux et al., 2020 [
23]). In the FRM4GHG2 project, the aim is to retrieve HCHO using the measurements performed with the Vertex70 (low-spectral resolution spectrometer) with good accuracy and precision. To verify this capability, we take the opportunity to use the campaign measurements at Sodankylä, where the Vertex 70 HCHO data can be compared to the ones derived from the Bruker IFS 125HR spectrometer measuring at the same site [
22]. We focus on the data collected during the 2019 period when the Vertex70 was operated in optimal conditions and has been providing good and stable results for XCO
2 and other gases (see
Section 3.1.3).
The best agreement found between the Vertex70 and the 125HR HCHO columns is obtained when the same set of four spectral micro-windows was used in both cases (see
Table 1 and Vigouroux et al. [
22] for more details on chosen parameters). The spectroscopic parameters for both retrievals are, of course, taken the same: the atm16 linelist from G. toon (JPL) available at
http://mark4sun.jpl.nasa.gov/toon/line%20list/linelist.html (accessed on 1 March 2024), which corresponds to HITRAN2012 for the HCHO absorptions.
The time series of the retrieved HCHO columns from the 125HR (reference) and the Vertex70 are shown in
Figure 11. The Vertex70 HCHO columns are close to the 125HR HCHO columns, reproducing the day-to-day and seasonal variabilities well. The median bias of the Vertex70 relative to the reference is −2.7 × 10
14 molec.cm
2 (−8.9%), and the median absolute deviation (robust dispersion) scaled with 1.4826 to be equivalent to 2-sigma of a standard deviation is 3.2 × 10
14 molec.cm
2 (10.5%). Given the uncertainty budget of both instruments (14% and 9% for systematic and random uncertainties of the 125HR, see Vigouroux et al., 2018 [
22]), they are in agreement. Note that this agreement is achieved when the Vertex70 spectra are derived from the interferograms using a Norton–Beer strong apodization; applying Boxcar apodization that is traditionally used with the 125HR measurements to the Vertex70 data gives HCHO columns biased by −45% and with a larger dispersion relative to the reference columns.
The good agreement between the HCHO columns retrieved from the two instruments is also seen in the scatter plot shown in
Figure 12; the Pearson correlation coefficient is 0.97.
3.3.2. Carbonyl Sulfide (OCS) Measurements Using the Vertex70 Spectrometer
Carbonyl sulfide (OCS) is the most abundant sulfur-containing trace gas naturally present in the atmosphere. The uptake of OCS by plants is similar to the uptake mechanism of CO
2 during photosynthesis by plants. However, unlike CO
2, which is also released by plants during respiration, OCS uptake is a one-way process. This important feature is used to differentiate between the photosynthesis and respiration fluxes of CO
2 and is used as a measurement-based photosynthesis tracer [
24,
25]. The sources and sinks of OCS are diverse and complex, with significant uncertainties remaining in the global budget estimates. Amongst the known sources of OCS, the ocean is believed to be the most important, with both direct and indirect flux contributions, and drives the seasonality of OCS in the Southern Hemisphere, while the uptake by plants is the main sink of OCS and dominates the seasonality of OCS in the Northern Hemisphere. Recent studies match up the top-down estimates with bottom-up estimates of OCS, indicating missing sources or overestimating the sink of OCS [
26,
27]. To close this gap, more OCS measurements are needed, covering different latitudes and ecosystem regions to validate the model estimates and build a better understanding of the sources and sinks of OCS.
The OCS measurements are performed using different techniques at different levels of the atmosphere. The NOAA’s Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division (NOAA/ESRL/GMD) network performs ground-based and aircraft-based flask sampling measurements of the surface/near-surface concentrations. The satellites provide a wide distribution of OCS measurements but are mainly sensitive in the upper/mid-troposphere and stratosphere and, therefore, have little help constraining land fluxes. The total/partial columns of OCS in the atmosphere are measured by remote sensing techniques from different platforms using the strong spectral absorption lines at 2030–2070 cm
−1 in the MIR spectral region. A recent study by Hannigan et al., 2022 [
28] worked on the globally consistent retrieval analysis of the OCS trend using data from 22 available NDACC stations providing OCS data. The retrieved products were the lower and free tropospheric and lower stratospheric columns and total column OCS data. The study showed that the OCS trend in the troposphere varies significantly, driven by anthropogenic emissions; there is an overall small but increasing trend in the stratosphere, and the trends in most of the atmosphere were increasing in the period 2008–2016, but in the recent period (data till 2020) are now decreasing. Increasing the number of measurement sites is therefore desired to extend the coverage to better capture the latitudinal gradient, reduce the mismatch between the measurements and models, and quantify and optimize the sources and sinks of OCS.
Here the measurements performed by the Vertex70 in the MIR during the year 2019 are analyzed to perform OCS retrievals. The retrieval procedure used in the OCS retrieval from HR spectra, as described in Hannigan et al., 2022 [
28], is applied to the LR Vertex70 spectra. This showed a large scatter in the time series of OCS. Therefore, the Norton–Beer strong apodization was used instead of Boxcar (see
Section 3.3.1). Additionally, due to the weak and wide absorption features, slightly wider retrieval windows were utilized, which reduced the scatter significantly. Setting the SNR deweighting to a value of 500 helped to further improve the overall intraday variability.
Table 2 gives a summary of the key retrieval parameters.
The median total error from the Vertex70 analysis was found to be about 4.2%. The HR measurements from the Sodankylä site did not cover the spectral range used in the OCS retrieval during 2019. Therefore, a direct comparison of the two columns was not possible. As a result, the publicly available OCS analysis results from a nearby NDACC station in Kiruna, Sweden (67.84°N, 20.40°E; 420 m a.s.l.), about 330 km away, was used for comparison, such as to check if the intra-day variability and seasonal cycle are well captured. The time series of the OCS retrieved from the HR measurements performed in Kiruna and the LR measurements performed in Sodankylä using Vertex70 are shown in
Figure 13. Due to the data being from two different sites, we do not attempt to make any direct daily coincidences comparisons. However, the time series of the Sodankylä Vertex70 OCS retrieval results demonstrates a clear intraday variability as well as a seasonal trend that is comparable to the results from the Kiruna 120/5 HR spectrometer.
The successful retrieval of OCS from LR Vertex70 type of spectrometers will assist in complementing the HR NDACC stations by providing observations from data-poor regions. Furthermore, together with the other means of OCS data providers, it will help in creating a global OCS data product that is needed to close the global OCS budget.
3.3.3. Nitrous Oxide (N2O) and Methane (CH4) Measurements Using Vertex70
In the framework of the FRM project, retrievals were performed for N
2O and CH
4 from the MIR spectra observed by the low-resolution FTIR (Vertex70) and compared to the NDACC measurements observed using Bruker IFS 125HR with a typical spectral resolution of 0.0035 cm
−1. Based on one year (2019) of campaign data, retrievals of N
2O and CH
4 were performed from the Vertex70 MIR low spectral resolution spectra [
29]. The accuracy and precision of the Vertex70 N
2O and CH
4 column and profile retrievals are assessed by comparing them with the coincident 125HR retrievals. The retrieval micro-windows for N
2O used for the 125HR measurements were applied to the Vertex70 measurements. The relative differences between the N
2O total columns retrieved from Vertex70 and 125HR spectra are −0.3 ± 0.7% with a correlation coefficient of 0.93. However, applying a similar approach for CH
4 gave an underestimation of the Vertex70 CH
4 columns by about −1.3 ± 1.1% and a correlation coefficient of 0.77 relative to the reference NDACC data. As a result, alternate micro-windows were investigated. The relative differences between the CH
4 total columns retrieved from the Vertex70 and 125HR spectra using the alternate retrieval micro-windows become −0.0 ± 0.8% with a correlation coefficient of 0.87. The new micro-windows selected for the Vertex70 MIR CH
4 retrievals removed the underestimation w.r.t. of the 125HR and resulted in an improved correlation coefficient. The retrievals of the vertical profile of the Vertex70 N
2O and CH
4 were also investigated. The degree of freedom for signal (DOF) of the Vertex70 N
2O retrieval is 1.6, which is less than the DOF of 2.6 obtained for the retrievals from the 125HR spectra. However, it still allows us to derive two partial columns (0–6 km and 6–25 km) with a DOF of 0.8 in each layer. The mean and SD of the differences between the Vertex70 and 125HR is 0.0 ± 1.9% in the partial column between 6 and 25 km and −0.5 ± 1.7% between the surface and 6 km. The DOF of the Vertex70 CH
4 retrievals is only 1.3, which means that the focus should be on its total columns.
The retrieval of N2O and CH4 from the MIR spectra of low-resolution measurements from the Vertex70 type of spectrometers offers an interesting opportunity to characterize the performances of the low- vs. high-spectral resolution instruments, the evolution of their performances over time, with various technological and retrieval advances. In the framework of the FRM4GHG2 project, it is intended to make the low-resolution FTIR spectrometers (especially Vertex70 and its upgraded model, the Invenio spectrometer) mobile such that it is convenient to transport the instruments and operate them autonomously. The details of these developments are discussed in the next section. Having the possibility of mobile autonomous operation will allow more campaign based as well as permanent operations at locations where traditional high-resolution 125HR instruments cannot be installed. Performing side-by-side measurements at other sites will help to better under the performances of the retrieval of the different gases between the high- and low-spectral resolution instruments under different conditions, such as varying humidity, aerosol load, or low-latitude.
3.3.4. Making the Vertex70 Type of Spectrometers Portable and Autonomous
The Vertex70 spectrometer was set up inside the FRM4GHG container in Sodankylä and coupled to the large home-built solar tracker system that is also used for the TCCON/NDACC measurements by BIRA-IASB with the IFS 125HR spectrometers. The measurements were performed autonomously using the BARCOS system [
30], which included a homemade control system for automated operation with the possibility of manual intervention at any time.
In the framework of the FRM4GHG2 project, the aim was to make the instrument mobile to facilitate easy deployment at other locations. The existing solutions of automated enclosure systems [
31] are focused on the EM27/SUN systems. Therefore, we developed a new modular system capable of hosting Vertex70 or Invenio (which replaces the Vertex70 that was discontinued by its manufacturer) or EM27/SUN or IRCube type of spectrometers. Unlike the EM27/SUN, the Vertex70, the Invenio, or the IRCube spectrometers do not have an integrated solar tracker. The development, therefore, also included the development of a compact solar tracker and its integration with the spectrometer and enclosure.
The spectrometer is housed inside an insulated temperature controlled and water-proof box, installed on a base plate with mounting positions that can be dedicated to any of the above spectrometers for the purpose of achieving the same orientation each time the spectrometer is removed and re-mounted again. The opening of the box is located on top to allow easy access to all components installed inside. The Vertex70, and its replacement, the Invenio, are the largest in size among the other spectrometers tested during the campaign. Therefore, fitting in the EM27/SUN or the IRCube requires little adjustments in the base plate and the mounting positions. The enclosure box also contains an electronics bay that houses an industrial PC, UPS, power supplies, barometer, heating/cooling elements, and cabling. The enclosure has removable wheels attached to the bottom to allow easy movement for transportation or adjustments of orientation during measurement setup. The homemade compact solar tracker system was built based on the same principle of operation as the BIRA-IASB large solar trackers. In addition, a full sky camera is included to find the sun quickly after the passing of clouds. The rain sensor is part of the solar tracker system and allows for the detection of rain or no rain conditions and therefore helps the automation system to point the tracker mirrors in the direction of the sun or to be in the park position (looking down toward the surface), respectively. Furthermore, a meteorological station with an ICOS-compliant weather station [
32] providing high-quality measurements of temperature, surface pressure, relative humidity, wind speed, and wind direction is included in the system to assist in the automation and data analysis. A separate unit (small electronics enclosure) is mounted on the mast of the meteorological station. It contains an external camera looking at the spectrometer and the antennas for the internet connection. The monitoring and data transfer is foreseen using either Wi-Fi or mobile (4G/5G) network depending on the availability of the infrastructure at the measurement station. The automation software allows for fully autonomous operation of the measurements with the possibility of manual or remote intervention at any time. The FTIR spectrometer and the solar tracker system can be removed from the enclosure and can be transported separately.
The enclosure system with integrated compact solar tracker and meteorological station is shown in
Figure 14, during its deployment at the campus of BIRA-IASB in Uccle, Belgium. The dimensions of the enclosure with the solar tracker are 154 cm × 96 cm × 100 cm (l × w × h). The dimensions of the enclosure without the solar tracker are 147 cm × 96 cm × 74 cm (l × w × h) and weighs 70 kg. The dimensions of the compact solar tracker are 19 cm × 41 cm × 65 cm (l × w × h), and its weight is 15 kg. The temperature inside the enclosure can be controlled to a set value using Peltier elements. Lightening protection is included to avoid damage, especially during deployments in the tropics. The whole setup is capable of working with the AC supply voltage ranging from 100 to 240 V (50–60 Hz). The maximum total electrical power consumption is 640 W. Most of the power is used for temperature control. Therefore, for locations where the ambient temperature is closer to the set operating temperature, which is determined by the specifications of the installed spectrometer (laboratory spectrometers such as the Invenio have a much narrower range of acceptable operating temperatures than a field instrument such as the EM27/SUN), the power consumption will be lower. In addition, with the provision of battery and solar panels, the spectrometer can be operated in the field, making it independent of an external power supply.
The portability of the Vertex70/Invenio type of spectrometers will extend the observational capacity of the TCCON and NDACC networks for the observation of CO2, CH4, CO, and H2O in the NIR and additional species like N2O, CH4, HCHO, and OCS in the MIR spectral regions. These measurements have already contributed effectively to satellite validation, model validation, and scientific studies related to the carbon cycle or to the chemistry and dynamics of other measured gases. The recorded MIR spectra from the Vertex70 will be further investigated for retrieving additional species (like ethane (C2H6)).
The Vertex70/Invenio type of spectrometers covering the NIR as well as the MIR spectral range have the advantage of providing measurements of species like HCHO, OCS, N2O, CH4, … This is of direct relevance to the validation of satellite missions focusing on greenhouse gases and air quality, e.g., Sentinel-5 Precursor mission where both CH4 and HCHO columns are the derived products and need validation using FRM data. The Vertex70/Invenio working inside the FRM4GHG2 enclosure system has the potential to be used as a traveling standard for the MIR species, where currently, there is a lack of reference measurements for the absolute calibration of the target gases measured at the high-resolution FTIR sites. One such automated enclosure system is currently being prepared to be deployed in the tropical forest site at Yangambi, Democratic Republic of the Congo (0.8123°N, 24.4834°E) in 2024, and plans for the deployment of several others in India (Bhopal, Ahmedabad), Brazil (Santarem), and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Mbandaka) by 2026.
3.4. Results from IRCube Upgrades
The Xgas and XAir occasionally show step changes after relocation and realignment of the system in the Sodankylä and subsequent campaign measurements in Wollongong and Darwin (see
Section 3.1.4). Although small, these step changes were significant and not seen in co-located EM27/SUN and TCCON measurements. The changes were attributed to the variability in the input optics alignment, which is not well defined in this configuration and impacts the FOV and ILS of the FTIR system. Illumination of the entrance aperture and reproducibility of the input aperture position on a selector wheel both affect the FOV and ILS of the spectrometer; we conjecture that this feeds through to retrieve total column amounts of target gases.
The data record of the IRCube for the 2021 to mid-2023 period and the corresponding reference TCCON data are shown in
Figure 15, evaluated using GGG2020. The IRCube foreoptics have been rebuilt and adjusted on several occasions as the system was moved and reassembled several times since its deployment in Sodankylä. In particular, the Haidinger fringes were examined with respect to the optical axis of the spectrometer and found to be off-center with respect to the internal aperture. The internal design of the spectrometer is such that there are no options to adjust these imperfections. One exception to this is the light switch on the aperture wheel that allows for some limited adjustment so that the 0.5 mm aperture is better aligned with the Haidinger fringe center (but still has an offset). The aperture wheel does not rotate back to the exact same position if moved between measurements (the motor is a stepper motor, so the error is about a step), which is a recognized issue in the IRCube. The changes in the IRCube are most clearly visible in the Xluft, bottom panel of
Figure 15. Xluft is the column-average mile fraction of dry air. It is calculated as the ratio of the column of dry air calculated from surface pressure and the a priori H
2O profile to the column of O
2 retrieved in the single delta band. For example, from mid-2021, the level of Xluft changes from 0.985 (pre-mid-2021) to 0.995 due to a failure of the HeNe internal laser and its replacement with a new one. In early 2022, due to heavy rain, the telescope tube was filled with water, which was not discovered for a couple of months.
The IRCube was moved from its location on the UoW campus to a new purpose-built atmospheric laboratory about 200 m away in July 2022. On this new measurement platform, another fiber optic fed EM27/SUN spectrometer, with a second Ekotracker STR21G solar tracker, was installed. This second setup used a telescope with a 400mm focal length lens and a fiber optic cable with a core diameter of 0.8 mm, NA of 0.22, and also 20 m long Polymicro fiber (FIA800). The change of the fiber optic cable can be seen in
Figure 15 in the Xluft tests performed at the approximate date 2022.62. Finally, apart from the brief period around 2022.95 when the 0.88 mm diameter fiber optic was used, throughout 2023, the system was relatively stable.
To address this observed variability in Xluft, the input and output/detector optics of the IRcube were rebuilt in late 2023 to emulate those of the EM27/SUN systems, such as those used in COCCON and FRM4GHG activities. In this rebuild configuration, the FOV and ILS are defined by the focal length and aperture of the output detector optics inside the spectrometer and should be more robust and less dependent on the fiber optic input beam alignment. The focused input optics and aperture have been removed such that the input to the spectrometer is a parallel beam collimated from the output of the fiber optic. This rebuilt configuration is now undergoing testing and will be reported separately.
3.5. FRM4GHG Traveling Standard
TCCON is the current reference network for total column measurements of greenhouse gases (especially CO
2) and is used as a validation source for satellites and models as well as carbon cycle studies. To ensure the high quality of reference data, it is tied to the WMO trace gas scale by comparison with vertically integrated, collocated profile observations taken with in situ sensors onboard airborne platforms at a few stations [
7,
33,
34]. Furthermore, the site-to-site bias must be kept minimal to ensure the internal consistency of the network.
The collection of collocated in situ reference profiles at the TCCON site is a very laborious and expensive task and so only a few such measurements are available. Furthermore, it is not possible to perform such measurements at all stations, e.g., in densely populated regions or stations on islands where the recovery of AirCore systems is difficult or it is not guaranteed, or research aircraft are not easily available or have no permission to fly over some regions (e.g., over a city). Hence, the reference profiles are not available at all TCCON sites, limiting a comprehensive comparison between the individual TCCON sites.
TCCON uses two additional methods for quality assurance of the individual sites. Each site is required to perform regular monitoring of the instrumental line shape (ILS) of the spectrometer by performing reference gas cell measurements. Secondly, the evaluation of XAir (also called Xluft in the latest TCCON data version—GGG2020). Both methods are used to detect deviations of the spectrometer from its nominal behavior. The derivation of ILS parameters from gas cell measurements and the characterization of the HCl gas cells used by TCCON is detailed by Hase et al., 2013, 2019 [
35,
36]. The use of XAir is presented by Wunch et al., 2015 [
10]. The two methods allow us to recognize deviations from the expected instrumental performance at each site. However, they do not allow for a direct comparison of Xgas values across sites and hence cannot sufficiently ensure network-wide consistency. This is where the concept of a traveling standard (TS) instrument is very helpful as it enables evaluation of the consistency of Xgas values between TCCON sites, the TS acting as the standard of comparison. It is with this view that the TS has been developed in the framework of the FRM4GHG project using an EM27/SUN spectrometer which is housed in an automatically controlled enclosure system for allowing both remote and manual controllability as required at the measurement location. Further details on the TS can be found in Herkommer et al., 2024 [
37]. Here, we demonstrate the usefulness of the TS based on the data collected during a recent site visit at the Izaña TCCON site in Tenerife.
The first step is the preparation of the TS instrument for the TCCON site visit. Side-by-side measurements are collected with the COCCON reference spectrometer permanently operated at the central facility in Karlsruhe, Germany, before and after each deployment of the TS. This is to characterize the instrument and any potential bias that may arise during transport or deployments. The details of the evaluation method can be found in Herkommer et al., 2024 [
37]. The ILS of the TS is described by two parameters, the modulation efficiency (ME) and the phase error (PE). The ME and PE before the campaign were 0.9840 and −0.001542, and after the campaign were 0.9822 and −0.001160, respectively. Both values are within the nominal range of an EM27/SUN [
38].
The Xgas values of CO
2, CH
4, and CO from the side-by-side measurements in Karlsruhe before and after the site visit of the Izaña TCCON site are plotted in
Figure 16. The data from the COCCON reference spectrometer are in red squares, and the data from the TS are in yellow dots. The XCO values of the TS are found to have an SZA dependence on an unknown source. Therefore, an empirical correction is applied to the data [
37], and the resulting data are shown as blue triangles. The data in March and August were collected before and after the Izaña TCCON site visit. For both periods, empirical bias-correction factors
are derived for each species. To derive them, the data of each instrument are binned in intervals of
-minutes and for each bin, the average is taken. Here,
:
Here,
describes the i-th bin of each instrument, SN27 points to the COCCON reference spectrometer, and SN39 to the TS at the Karlsruhe TCCON site.
The bias correction factors are used for two purposes. First, their values before and after each campaign are compared to monitor the stability of the TS and to derive an estimate of the bias drift. Secondly, they are used to connect the measurements at each site with the COCCON reference unit operated in Karlsruhe. For each bias compensation factor, an uncertainty based on the standard error is calculated for each bin. This standard error is propagated to the final compensation factor. The bias compensation factors before and after the Izaña campaign are given in
Table 3. For each period, the average difference between the COCCON reference and the TS spectrometers is calculated (
) as well as the deviation of the difference from the previous comparison (
). As a comparison, the estimated TCCON site-to-site accuracy (Laughner et al., 2023 [
11],
Table 3, columns “Mean abs. dev”) is given. The
values are significantly smaller than the TCCON site-to-site accuracy. Hence, the TS device is accurate enough to serve as a comparison unit for TCCON sites.
Despite the application of an empirical correction for XCO, the deviation observed here is much larger than that observed in the previous campaign with the TS. In Herkommer et al., 2024 [
37], deviations of 0.04 ppb to a maximum value of 0.5 ppb have been reported. This indicates that there is still an uncaptured issue with the XCO channel.
The site visit at the Izaña TCCON station took place from 15 June 2023 to 14 July 2023. During this time, a total of 11 days of side-by-side measurements were performed next to the TCCON instrument. The TCCON spectrometer collects the standard TCCON measurements (HR data at 0.02 cm
−1 spectral resolution) and low-resolution measurements (LR data at 0.5 cm
−1 spectral resolution), matching the resolution of the EM27/SUN spectrometers. The latter measurements are performed to avoid deviation in the Xgas retrieval, which is dependent on the spectral resolution (Sha et al., 2020 [
7], Petri et al. [
39]). Furthermore, both the low-resolution data can be processed with PROFFAST2, and hence, we avoid any potential bias in the comparison of the TCCON-LR and the TS data that may occur due to the use of different retrieval software packages.
The time series of the recorded data during the site visit of the TS is plotted in
Figure 17. In red, pentagons represent the TCCON-HR data, in sandy stars are the TCCON-LR data, and in blue dots are the TS data. For all species, the visual analysis reveals a good agreement. The high noise level in the TCCON data starting from 11 July 2023 is caused by an autonomous accidental change of the data recording scheme. This reduces the scan duration to approximately half of the routine scan period, whereas all parameters (scan velocity, number of averaged spectra) remain the same. The reason for this change is not known yet and is under investigation.
From the side-by-side measurements, the bias compensation factors for the HR and the LR data relative to the TS data are derived (
,
) for each species. By multiplying them by the
bias compensation factors (derived above), we obtain a bias compensation factor that describes the deviation of the Izaña TCCON site relative to the reference spectrometer in Karlsruhe (
). These factors can be converted into a relative deviation and are plotted in
Figure 18.
The error bars include the forward propagated random errors of each compensation factor (given first, with a ±-sign) and uncertainty based on the difference of the side-by-side measurements with the COCCON-reference spectrometer before and after each campaign (given second). The reason why the uncertainty is not symmetrical is that it is derived from the change of the bias compensation factors before and after the campaign. Hence, it is a signed number as the can become smaller or larger.
Figure 18 shows the results of the site visit for Tsukuba and Wollongong, as previously shown in Herkommer et al., 2024 [
37], and overlays the results of the recent site visit from Izaña for comparison. The deviation of the XCO
2 LR data is 0.056 ± 0.005 + 0.610%, and hence by 0.06% is just outside the estimated TCCON site-to-site error but with a large uncertainty. The deviation of the HR data is −0.018 ± 0.005 + 0.061% and, including the uncertainty, within the estimated TCCON error. For XCH
4, both deviations of the HR and LR data (−0.021 ± 0.005 − 0.031% and 0.011 ± 0.005 − 0.031%, respectively) are within the estimated TCCON site-to-site error. For XCO, the deviations are −3.832 ± 0.053 + 1.156% and −7.215 ± 0.058 + 1.116% for the HR and LR data.
For the interpretation of the results, it is important to note that the comparisons of the HR data with the TS contain a variable unknown smoothing error due to different vertical sensitivities. The comparison with the LR data is more meaningful.
To conclude, this example evaluation of the Izaña campaign demonstrates the workflow of the traveling standard instrument. Using these data, it is possible to compare Xgas values derived from different TCCON sites with each other. Each site visit takes a couple of months (transport, collection of measurements at the TCCON site, side-by-side measurements in Karlsruhe). For operationally serving the TCCON network as a whole, expanding the results of TS campaigns to additional TCCON sites in the same area by involving more EM27/SUN spectrometers seems a promising strategy. Extension of the TS to cover the MIR species is also desired. The Vertex70/Invenio type of spectrometers tested in this campaign with the liquid nitrogen-cooled InSb detector have the potential to be used as a TS for some of the species that have currently been evaluated and proved to be promising. This will immensely help NDACC tie the measurements to a common standard and reduce site-to-site biases.
3.6. Software Developments to Achieve FRM Quality Data
With respect to achieving the goal of providing FRM data, standardization of the data processing pipeline is of equal importance as the realization of hardware standards and procedures for verification of instrumental performance. In order to reflect this requirement, the PROFFAST data processing scheme has been developed in the framework of ESA projects COCCON-PROCEEDS I-III and FRM4GHG. The use of this processing scheme for data generation is required by COCCON and—together with recommendations for operation procedures and the instrumental characterizations performed for each participating spectrometer—sets the requirements for providing approved datasets. The PROFFAST software (latest version 2.4) and a wrapper for convenient use of the software are source-open, and the codes are freely available to anyone (published under GNU General Public License version 3).
The PROFFAST data processing scheme is composed of three individual steps, which are mapped into three processing modules: PREPROCESS, PCXS, and INVERS.
The PREPROCESS code generates spectra out of the raw DC-coupled interferograms, which form the primary data output delivered by a Fourier Transform spectrometer. These are initially stored in a proprietary format defined by the manufacturer of the spectrometer. PREPOCESS performs various quality checks on the measurement (sufficient signal level, stability of DC level during the recording of a scan, level of out-of-band spectral artifacts, wavenumber assignment, …) so that it can be assumed that all output spectra generated by PREPROCESS can subsequently be analyzed.
The measurement cadence of low-resolution FTIR spectrometers is very high (e.g., a single pair of double-sided forward–backward scans of an EM27/SUN operated with recommended acquisition parameters takes 6 s), so the data analysis scheme needs to be optimized with respect to computational speed. PROFFAST uses different strategies for achieving high processing speed, among these the use of precomputed daily lookup tables containing the required information on the spectral cross-section for each gas species. These lookup tables are generated using the meteorological information provided by the operator (ground pressure, temperature, and trace gas a priori profiles) by a call from the program unit PCXS. For aligning COCCON XGAS results with the TCCON reference network, the a priori meteorology information as used and provided by TCCON is adopted.
After running PREPROCESS for generating the spectra and calling PCXS for the generation of the cross-sections lookup table, the quantitative trace gas analysis of all measurements collected during the local measurement day is performed. This is achieved by calling INVERS, which works through the spectra as listed in the input file of INVERS. INVERS also incorporates post-processing, which performs empirical corrections of residual gas biases by applying airmass-independent and airmass-dependent corrections. The origin of these corrections is model errors, primarily shortcomings in the spectroscopic description (band intensities, pressure broadening, line mixing effects).
During the FRM4GHG2 project, extensive work on PROFFAST has been performed. The latest software version is the ver2.4 release. Relevant update features are the following:
The processing now supports the Invenio and IRCube spectrometers investigated in the framework of FRM4GHG. Specifically, PREPROCESS now also handles single-sided interferograms as delivered by these spectrometers. Because the presence of residual phase errors is much more critical in the case of single-sided interferograms, a novel phase correction scheme, which constructs a smooth analytical phase, has been developed and implemented;
An extensive spectroscopy update was performed. Individual line lists and the total internal partition sums have been updated to match the HITRAN 2020 data. At the time of compilation, no line-mixing parameters for CH4 were available in HITRAN, so the required parameters were deduced from cell measurements of methane–air mixtures performed at KIT. The solar line list provided by Geoff Toon for GGG2020 was incorporated for describing the solar spectrum;
The airmass-dependent modeling of atmospheric spectra has been refined, especially for high solar zenith angles. In order to save computational time and storage, the cross-sections are not tabulated as a function of vertical coordinate (e.g., pressure) but refer to the integrated absorption for the whole atmosphere. This approach requires a polynomial expansion for quantifying the deviation versus a simple model of a plane parallel atmosphere without refraction. The number of fitted parameters used in the expansion has been increased from four to five;
The empirical adjustments of COCCON Xgas products (airmass-independent and airmass-dependent corrections in INVERS) have been updated, now involving several EM27/SUN spectrometers and two TCCON reference sites (TCCON Karlsruhe and TCCON Sodankylä). The new GGG2020 reanalysis provided by TCCON has been used as a target reference. Because a significant slope change has been found when projecting TCCON XCH4 results versus XH2O using GGG2014 or GGG2020 data, a further empirical adjustment has been implemented in the post-processing of PROFFAST, which allows for an ad hoc slope correction of Xgas versus XH2O;
The latest PROFFAST release includes a revised version of the wrapper with significantly extended functionalities [
40].