Obesity and Other Nutrition Related Abnormalities in Pre-Dialysis Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) Participants
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographics
3.2. Clinical
3.3. Anthropometry
3.4. Dietary Intake
3.5. Biochemistry
4. Discussion
Limitations of Study
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Measurement | Formula | Cut-Off Values | Interpretation |
---|---|---|---|
BMI [17] | Weight/height2 | <18.49 kg/m2 | underweight |
18.5–24.99 kg/m2 | normal weight | ||
25–29.99 kg/m2 | overweight | ||
>30 kg/m2 | obese | ||
Adjusted body weight [44] | aBWef= BWef + [(SBW − BWef) × 0.25] ef: oedema free weight | ||
MUAC [45] | <23 cm females | Malnourished | |
<22 cm males | Malnourished | ||
>28 females | Overweight | ||
>29 males | Overweight | ||
>30 females and males | Obese | ||
WC [46] | <80 cm for females <94 cm for males | Normal | |
between 80–88 cm for females between 94–102cm for males | Increased risk for disease | ||
>88 cm for females and >102 cm for males | High risk for disease | ||
AFA/AMA area [44] | AFA = [MAC(cm) × TSF(cm)/2 π × TSF(cm)2]/4 π | <5th percentile | Wasted |
AMA = [MAC (cm) − (π × Triceps Skinfold Thickness (cm))]2/4 π | |||
≥5th and ≤15th percentile | Below average muscle/fat | ||
≥15th and ≤85th | Average muscle/fat | ||
≥85th and ≤95th percentile | Above average muscle/fat | ||
>95th percentile | High muscle/fat |
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n | Mean ± SD | ||
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 70 | 41.7 ± 11.8 | |
n | Percent % | ||
Gender | Male | 33 | 47.1 |
Female | 37 | 52.9 | |
Employment status | Full time | 29 | 41.4 |
Part time | 5 | 7.1 | |
Unemployed | 22 | 31.4 | |
Pensioner/Grant holder | 4 | 5.7 | |
Other | 10 | 14.2 | |
Monthly Income | US $0–126 | 29 | 41.4 |
US $127–316 | 18 | 25.7 | |
US $317–633 | 15 | 21.4 | |
US $634–949 | 5 | 7.1 | |
>US $949 | 3 | 4.3 | |
Education level | Primary school | 10 | 14.3 |
Grade 8–11 | 32 | 45.7 | |
Grade 12 | 20 | 28.6 | |
University | 1 | 1.4 | |
Technicon | 7 | 10.0 |
n | Mean ± SD | ||
---|---|---|---|
Blood pressure (systolic) mmHg | 64 | 146.0 ± 25.5 | |
Blood pressure (diastolic) mmHg | 64 | 81.0 ± 15.3 | |
n | % | ||
Oedema | None | 44 | 62.9 |
Mild | 15 | 21.4 | |
Moderate | 8 | 11.4 | |
Severe | 3 | 4.3 | |
GFR stages | Stage 3 | 21 | 30.0 |
Stage 4 | 18 | 25.7 | |
Stage 5 | 31 | 44.2 | |
Cause Renal Failure | Polycystic kidney disease | 6 | 8.6 |
Hypertension | 35 | 50.0 | |
Glomerular disease | 13 | 18.6 | |
Other and unknown | 16 | 22.9 |
Total Group n = 70 | Male n = 33 | Female n = 37 | * p Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean ± SD | ||||
Weight (kg) | 76.8 ± 25.4 | 82.9 ± 23 | 71.4 ± 19.7 | * 0.03 |
BMI (unit) | 28.4 ± 7.0 | 28.4 ± 7.8 | 28.6 ± 6.4 | * 0.90 |
Waist circumference (cm) | 92.1 ± 16.8 | 94.9 ±19.5 | 91.6 ± 13.7 | * 0.18 |
MUAC (cm) | 31.0 ± 5.4 | 31.2 ± 5.1 | 30.5 ± 5.8 | * 0.84 |
Triceps (mm) | 21.0 ± 9.1 | 17.0 ± 9.0 | 24.0 ± 8.0 | * 0.001 |
BMI Categories | n (%) | |||
Underweight | 3 (4.3) | 0 | 3 (8.1) | Chi2 = 8.9, p = ** 0.03 |
Normal weight | 21 (30.0) | 13 (39.4) | 8 (21.7) | |
Overweight | 21 (30.0) | 12 (36.4) | 9 (24.3) | |
Obese | 25 (35.7) | 8 (24.2) | 17 (45.9) | |
Waist circumference Categories | ||||
Normal | 28 (40) | 18 (54.5) | 10 (27.0) | Chi2 = 8.0, p = ** 0.005 |
Increased risk | 13 (18.6) | 7 (21.2) | 6 (16.2) | |
High risk | 29 (41.4) | 8 (24.2) | 21 (56.8) | |
MUAC Categories | n (%) | |||
Undernourished | 5 (7.1) | 0 | 5 (13.5) | Chi2 = 3.0, p = ** 0.22 |
Normal | 17 (24.3) | 9 (27.2) | 8 (21.6) | |
Overweight | 9 (13.0) | 5 (15.1) | 4 (10.8) | |
Obese | 39 (55.7) | 19 (57.5) | 20 (54.0) | |
AMA Categories | n (%) | |||
Wasted | 1 (1.4) | 1 (3.0) | 0 | Chi2 = 8.9, p = ** 0.06 |
Below average muscle | 7 (10.0) | 6 (18.2) | 1 (2.7) | |
Average muscle | 36 (51.4) | 17 (51.5) | 19 (51.4) | |
Above average muscle | 13 (18.6) | 5 (15.2) | 8 (21.6) | |
High muscle | 12 (17.1) | 3 (9.1) | 9 (24.3) | |
AFA Categories | n (%) | |||
Wasted | 5 (7.1) | 3 (9.1) | 2 (5.4) | Chi2 = 12.2, p = ** 0.02 |
Below average fat | 5 (7.1) | 1 (3.0) | 4 (10.8) | |
Average fat | 40 (57.1) | 18 (54.5) | 22 (59.5) | |
Above average fat | 10 (14.3) | 2 (6.1) | 8 (21.6) | |
Excess fat | 9 (12.9) | 8 (24.2) | 1 (2.7) |
Recommended Daily Allowances [21] | Actual Intake | |
---|---|---|
Mean ± SD | ||
n = 70 | ||
Energy kcal/kg | 25–35 [23] | 27 |
2041.7 ± 732 kcal/kg | ||
Total protein g/kg | 0.6–0.8 | 1 |
0.55–0.6 g/kg [23] | 74.2 ± 28.4 g | |
Plant protein | 50% of protein intake | 34.2% |
25.4 ± 10.7 g | ||
Animal protein | 50% of protein intake | 64.8% |
48.1 ± 21.2 g | ||
Total fat | 34% Energy | 35.2% |
80.0 ± 34.9 g | ||
Saturated Fat | <7% of Energy | 10.7% |
24.3 ± 11.7 g | ||
Monounsaturated Fat | <20% Energy | 12.2% |
27.7 ± 14.4 g | ||
Polyunsaturated Fat | <10% Energy | 9.0% 20.6 ± 8.6 g |
Total trans fat g | 0 | 0.7 ± 0.5 |
Cholesterol mg | 200–300 | 278.2 ± 133.7 |
Carbohydrate | 55% Energy | 49.3% E 251.9 ± 93.7 g |
Added sugar g | 25 | 39.1 (23.0, 59.1) * |
Total sugars g | NA | 69.9 ± 29.2 |
Total dietary fiber g | 253–0 | 21.8 ± 9.7 |
Calcium mg | 1000–1200 | 484.7 (349.0, 743.1) * |
800–1000 [23] | ||
Iron mg | 101–8 | 13.0 ± 4.6 |
Phosphate mg | 800–1000 | 1038.7 ± 420.6 |
Sodium mg | 2400 | 2049 ± 965.1 |
2300 [23] | ||
Potassium mg | 2000–3000 | 2691.2 ± 932.7 |
Vitamin B6 mg | 5 | 3.2 ± 1.3 |
Folate mg | 1000 | 291.8 ± 118.0 |
Vitamin D mg | 5–10 | 2.7 (1.8, 5.2) * |
Normal Ranges * | Actual Median and Interquartile Range | |
---|---|---|
Urea mmol/L | 2.1–7.1 | 16.3 (10.9, 25.3) |
Creatinine umol/L | 64–104 | 287.0 (183, 477.5) |
GFR mL/min·1.73 m2 | >60 | 19.0 (10.8, 31.2) |
Potassium mmol/L | 3.5–5.1 | 4.8 (4.3, 5.2) |
Sodium mmol/L | 136–141 | 142.0 (139, 144.0) |
Phosphate mmol/L | 0.78–1.42 | 1.4 (1.1, 1.5) |
Total Chol mmol/L (high risk) | <4.5 | 4.9 (3.9, 5.7) |
LDL (high risk) mmol/L | <2.6 ** | 2.7 (2.1, 3.3) |
HDL mmol/L | >1.2 | 1.1 (1.0, 1.4) |
TG mmol/L | <1.7 | 1.7 (1.2, 2.5) |
CRP mg/L | <3 ** | 5.0 (1, 9) |
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Ebrahim, Z.; Moosa, M.R.; Blaauw, R. Obesity and Other Nutrition Related Abnormalities in Pre-Dialysis Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) Participants. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3608. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123608
Ebrahim Z, Moosa MR, Blaauw R. Obesity and Other Nutrition Related Abnormalities in Pre-Dialysis Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) Participants. Nutrients. 2020; 12(12):3608. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123608
Chicago/Turabian StyleEbrahim, Zarina, M. Rafique Moosa, and Renée Blaauw. 2020. "Obesity and Other Nutrition Related Abnormalities in Pre-Dialysis Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) Participants" Nutrients 12, no. 12: 3608. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123608