Factors Associated with Stunting among Children under 5 Years in Five South Asian Countries (2014–2018): Analysis of Demographic Health Surveys
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Sources
2.2. Study Variables
2.3. Potential Confounding Factors
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Prevalence of Stunting in Children Aged 0–23 Months, 24–59 Months and 0–59 Months
3.2. Factors Associated with Child Stunting for Children Aged 0–23 Months
3.3. Factors Associated with Child Stunting for Children Aged 24–59 Months
3.4. Factors Associated with Child Stunting for Children Aged 0–59 Months
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Model 1: Basic | Model 2: Basic and Underlying | Model 3: Basic, Underlying and Immediate | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | ||||
Countries | ||||||||||||
Maldives | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||||
India | 1.83 | 1.11 | 3.02 | 0.018 | 1.74 | 0.99 | 3.08 | 0.055 | 1.41 | 0.78 | 2.57 | 0.250 |
Bangladesh | 1.73 | 1.02 | 2.93 | 0.042 | 1.41 | 0.78 | 2.57 | 0.255 | 1.12 | 0.60 | 2.06 | 0.727 |
Nepal | 1.74 | 0.99 | 3.09 | 0.056 | 1.14 | 0.62 | 2.11 | 0.678 | 0.87 | 0.46 | 1.66 | 0.682 |
Pakistan | 1.51 | 0.85 | 2.67 | 0.160 | 1.50 | 0.80 | 2.82 | 0.207 | 1.29 | 0.67 | 2.50 | 0.447 |
Type of place of residence | ||||||||||||
Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||||
Rural | 1.34 | 1.12 | 1.61 | 0.001 | 1.02 | 0.86 | 1.22 | 0.808 | 1.01 | 0.86 | 1.19 | 0.891 |
Working status | ||||||||||||
Not working | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Working | 1.35 | 1.00 | 1.82 | 0.052 | 1.15 | 0.87 | 1.53 | 0.331 | ||||
Mother’s education | ||||||||||||
Secondary or higher | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Primary | 1.28 | 0.95 | 1.72 | 0.104 | 1.26 | 0.96 | 1.65 | 0.089 | ||||
No education | 1.66 | 1.24 | 2.23 | 0.001 | 1.65 | 1.29 | 2.13 | <0.001 | ||||
Maternal age at child’s birth | ||||||||||||
less than 20 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
20–29 | 0.82 | 0.69 | 0.99 | 0.034 | 0.90 | 0.75 | 1.08 | 0.242 | ||||
30–39 | 0.76 | 0.58 | 0.99 | 0.040 | 0.92 | 0.70 | 1.21 | 0.561 | ||||
40+ | 0.56 | 0.35 | 0.90 | 0.016 | 0.81 | 0.48 | 1.37 | 0.429 | ||||
Mother’s age | ||||||||||||
15–24 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
25–34 | 1.16 | 0.99 | 1.37 | 0.073 | 0.99 | 0.85 | 1.15 | 0.878 | ||||
35–49 | 1.64 | 1.17 | 2.30 | 0.004 | 1.18 | 0.84 | 1.65 | 0.339 | ||||
Mother’s marital status | ||||||||||||
Currently married | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Formerly married $ | 0.48 | 0.21 | 1.09 | 0.079 | 0.37 | 0.15 | 0.92 | 0.032 | ||||
Maternal height | ||||||||||||
≥160 cm | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
155–159 | 1.09 | 0.83 | 1.42 | 0.549 | 1.10 | 0.82 | 1.48 | 0.531 | ||||
150–154 | 1.55 | 1.19 | 2.03 | 0.001 | 1.54 | 1.15 | 2.06 | 0.004 | ||||
145–149 | 1.92 | 1.49 | 2.47 | <0.001 | 2.00 | 1.51 | 2.65 | <0.001 | ||||
<145 cm | 2.69 | 1.95 | 3.72 | <0.001 | 2.98 | 2.14 | 4.15 | <0.001 | ||||
Maternal BMI (kg/m2) | ||||||||||||
25+ | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
19–25 | 1.10 | 0.89 | 1.37 | 0.373 | 1.09 | 0.89 | 1.34 | 0.403 | ||||
<= 18.5 | 1.29 | 1.00 | 1.68 | 0.053 | 1.25 | 0.97 | 1.61 | 0.088 | ||||
Combined birth rank and birth interval | ||||||||||||
1st birth rank | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
2nd/3rd birth rank, more than 2 years interval | 0.89 | 0.74 | 1.07 | 0.220 | 0.98 | 0.82 | 1.16 | 0.786 | ||||
2nd/3rd birth rank, less than or equal 2 | 1.19 | 0.99 | 1.44 | 0.071 | 1.24 | 1.02 | 1.51 | 0.031 | ||||
4th birth rank, more than 2 years interval | 0.91 | 0.69 | 1.18 | 0.469 | 1.00 | 0.79 | 1.28 | 0.984 | ||||
4th birth rank, less than or equal to 2 | 1.19 | 0.92 | 1.55 | 0.182 | 1.27 | 0.98 | 1.65 | 0.072 | ||||
Paternal occupation | ||||||||||||
Non-agriculture | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Agriculture | 1.11 | 0.83 | 1.49 | 0.473 | 1.09 | 0.82 | 1.45 | 0.552 | ||||
Not working | 1.00 | 0.75 | 1.33 | 0.980 | 0.94 | 0.68 | 1.29 | 0.688 | ||||
Power over earnings (Woman has money autonomy) | ||||||||||||
By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Woman alone or joint decision | 1.12 | 0.82 | 1.55 | 0.471 | 1.10 | 0.79 | 1.51 | 0.579 | ||||
Power over Household decision making | ||||||||||||
By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Woman alone or joint decision | 0.86 | 0.63 | 1.17 | 0.329 | 0.89 | 0.62 | 1.27 | 0.529 | ||||
Woman has health care autonomy | ||||||||||||
By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Woman alone or joint decision | 0.95 | 0.70 | 1.28 | 0.717 | 0.90 | 0.65 | 1.24 | 0.526 | ||||
Pooled Household wealth index | ||||||||||||
Richest | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Richer | 0.93 | 0.74 | 1.18 | 0.567 | 0.99 | 0.78 | 1.25 | 0.910 | ||||
Middle | 1.05 | 0.82 | 1.33 | 0.714 | 1.07 | 0.85 | 1.37 | 0.558 | ||||
Poorer | 1.05 | 0.77 | 1.42 | 0.773 | 1.05 | 0.77 | 1.44 | 0.744 | ||||
Poorest | 1.11 | 0.81 | 1.52 | 0.515 | 1.12 | 0.82 | 1.52 | 0.487 | ||||
Source of drinking water | ||||||||||||
Not improved | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Improved | 1.14 | 0.96 | 1.36 | 0.130 | 1.05 | 0.89 | 1.24 | 0.555 | ||||
Type of toilet facility | ||||||||||||
Improved | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Unimproved | 1.04 | 0.85 | 1.26 | 0.725 | 1.11 | 0.92 | 1.33 | 0.273 | ||||
Combined mode and place of delivery | ||||||||||||
Caesarean and Health Facility | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Vaginal and Health Facility | 1.52 | 1.19 | 1.94 | 0.001 | 1.61 | 1.30 | 2.00 | <0.001 | ||||
Home | 1.69 | 1.31 | 2.18 | <0.001 | 1.81 | 1.42 | 2.31 | <0.001 | ||||
Delivery Assistance | ||||||||||||
Health professional | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Traditional birth attendant | 0.81 | 0.66 | 1.00 | 0.050 | 0.79 | 0.65 | 0.97 | 0.021 | ||||
Other untrained & | 0.93 | 0.80 | 1.09 | 0.385 | 0.92 | 0.79 | 1.08 | 0.316 | ||||
Antenatal clinic visits | ||||||||||||
≥8 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
4 to 7 | 1.03 | 0.87 | 1.23 | 0.718 | 1.00 | 0.83 | 1.20 | 0.974 | ||||
1 to 3 | 1.32 | 1.04 | 1.67 | 0.021 | 1.21 | 0.99 | 1.50 | 0.070 | ||||
None | 1.38 | 1.15 | 1.65 | <0.001 | 1.16 | 0.97 | 1.41 | 0.102 | ||||
Media | ||||||||||||
Reads newspaper | ||||||||||||
Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Yes ++ | 1.10 | 0.91 | 1.33 | 0.323 | 1.11 | 0.93 | 1.33 | 0.250 | ||||
Listening radio | ||||||||||||
Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Yes ++ | 0.95 | 0.78 | 1.16 | 0.633 | 1.01 | 0.82 | 1.25 | 0.891 | ||||
Watches television | ||||||||||||
Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Yes ++ | 1.05 | 0.91 | 1.22 | 0.505 | 1.00 | 0.87 | 1.14 | 0.957 | ||||
Dietary diversity score | ||||||||||||
<4 food Inadequate | 1.00 | |||||||||||
4+ foods Adequate | 0.80 | 0.66 | 0.96 | 0.015 | ||||||||
Initiation of breastfeeding | ||||||||||||
more than 1 h | 1.00 | |||||||||||
within 1 h | 1.01 | 0.77 | 1.32 | 0.953 | ||||||||
Currently breastfeeding | ||||||||||||
Yes | 1.00 | |||||||||||
No | 0.91 | 0.80 | 1.04 | 0.174 | ||||||||
Duration of breastfeeding | ||||||||||||
Up to 12 months | 1.00 | |||||||||||
>12 months | 1.37 | 1.06 | 1.75 | 0.015 | ||||||||
Vitamin A supplement | ||||||||||||
Yes | 1.00 | |||||||||||
No | 1.14 | 1.00 | 1.30 | 0.055 | ||||||||
Child’s age in months | ||||||||||||
0 to 5 | 1.00 | |||||||||||
6 to 11 | 1.21 | 0.97 | 1.51 | 0.090 | ||||||||
12 to 17 | 2.32 | 1.61 | 3.36 | <0.001 | ||||||||
18 to 23 | 3.51 | 2.38 | 5.17 | <0.001 | ||||||||
Sex of child | ||||||||||||
Female | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Male | 1.22 | 1.08 | 1.39 | 0.002 | ||||||||
Vaccination | ||||||||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Yes ** | 1.04 | 0.88 | 1.23 | 0.670 | ||||||||
Had diarrhoea recently | ||||||||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Yes | 1.10 | 0.90 | 1.33 | 0.352 | ||||||||
Had fever in last two weeks | ||||||||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Yes | 0.95 | 0.79 | 1.14 | 0.609 |
Variables | Model 1: Basic | Model 2: Basic and Underlying | Model 3: Basic, Underlying and Immediate | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | ||||
Countries | ||||||||||||
Maldives | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||||
India | 3.73 | 2.63 | 5.30 | <0.001 | 2.65 | 1.74 | 4.02 | <0.001 | 2.69 | 1.77 | 4.08 | <0.001 |
Bangladesh | 3.60 | 2.34 | 5.54 | <0.001 | 2.55 | 1.37 | 4.75 | 0.003 | 2.45 | 1.30 | 4.62 | 0.006 |
Nepal | 4.32 | 2.97 | 6.31 | <0.001 | 2.61 | 1.71 | 3.96 | <0.001 | 2.62 | 1.71 | 4.02 | <0.001 |
Pakistan | 3.79 | 2.54 | 5.64 | <0.001 | 3.37 | 2.17 | 5.23 | <0.001 | 3.28 | 2.09 | 5.15 | <0.001 |
Type of place of residence | ||||||||||||
Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||||
Rural | 1.86 | 1.62 | 2.14 | <0.001 | 1.18 | 1.04 | 1.33 | 0.008 | 1.17 | 1.04 | 1.31 | 0.011 |
Working status | ||||||||||||
Not working | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Working | 0.87 | 0.69 | 1.08 | 0.199 | 0.86 | 0.69 | 1.08 | 0.196 | ||||
Mother’s education | ||||||||||||
Secondary or higher | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Primary | 1.19 | 0.96 | 1.47 | 0.120 | 1.18 | 0.95 | 1.46 | 0.141 | ||||
No education | 1.47 | 1.28 | 1.70 | <0.001 | 1.46 | 1.27 | 1.69 | <0.001 | ||||
Maternal age at child’s birth | ||||||||||||
Less than 20 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
20–29 | 0.98 | 0.81 | 1.18 | 0.812 | 0.98 | 0.81 | 1.18 | 0.810 | ||||
30–39 | 1.40 | 0.57 | 3.42 | 0.460 | 1.41 | 0.58 | 3.46 | 0.448 | ||||
40+ | 1.45 | 0.54 | 3.90 | 0.458 | 1.44 | 0.53 | 3.88 | 0.472 | ||||
Mother’s age | ||||||||||||
15–24 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
25–34 | 0.89 | 0.77 | 1.03 | 0.119 | 0.89 | 0.77 | 1.03 | 0.118 | ||||
35–49 | 0.57 | 0.25 | 1.31 | 0.189 | 0.57 | 0.25 | 1.31 | 0.187 | ||||
Mother’s marital status | ||||||||||||
Currently married | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Formerly married $ | 1.18 | 0.86 | 1.62 | 0.306 | 1.17 | 0.85 | 1.61 | 0.335 | ||||
Maternal height | ||||||||||||
≥160 cm | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
155–159 | 1.55 | 1.24 | 1.94 | <0.001 | 1.53 | 1.22 | 1.91 | <0.001 | ||||
150–154 | 2.40 | 1.99 | 2.90 | <0.001 | 2.38 | 1.97 | 2.87 | <0.001 | ||||
145–149 | 3.68 | 2.91 | 4.64 | <0.001 | 3.63 | 2.87 | 4.60 | <0.001 | ||||
<145 cm | 4.81 | 3.75 | 6.18 | <0.001 | 4.76 | 3.71 | 6.11 | <0.001 | ||||
Maternal BMI (kg/m2) | ||||||||||||
25+ | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
19–25 | 1.08 | 0.86 | 1.37 | 0.498 | 1.08 | 0.85 | 1.37 | 0.529 | ||||
<=18.5 | 1.43 | 1.17 | 1.74 | <0.001 | 1.42 | 1.16 | 1.73 | 0.001 | ||||
Combined birth rank and birth interval | ||||||||||||
1st birth rank | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
2nd/3rd birth rank, more than 2 years interval | 1.36 | 1.16 | 1.61 | <0.001 | 1.37 | 1.16 | 1.61 | <0.001 | ||||
2nd/3rd birth rank, less than or equal 2 | 1.95 | 1.61 | 2.35 | <0.001 | 1.95 | 1.61 | 2.36 | <0.001 | ||||
4th birth rank, more than 2 years interval | 1.70 | 1.37 | 2.12 | <0.001 | 1.70 | 1.37 | 2.11 | <0.001 | ||||
4th birth rank, less than or equal to 2 | 1.63 | 1.23 | 2.15 | 0.001 | 1.56 | 1.17 | 2.07 | 0.002 | ||||
Paternal occupation | ||||||||||||
Non-agriculture | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Agriculture | 1.13 | 0.95 | 1.34 | 0.174 | 1.14 | 0.96 | 1.35 | 0.146 | ||||
Not working | 1.08 | 0.89 | 1.32 | 0.412 | 1.09 | 0.90 | 1.32 | 0.401 | ||||
Power over earnings (Woman has money autonomy) | ||||||||||||
By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Woman alone or joint decision | 1.27 | 1.01 | 1.59 | 0.043 | 1.28 | 1.02 | 1.60 | 0.035 | ||||
Power over Household decision making | ||||||||||||
By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Woman alone or joint decision | 0.85 | 0.63 | 1.14 | 0.287 | 0.83 | 0.62 | 1.12 | 0.221 | ||||
Woman has health care autonomy | ||||||||||||
By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Woman alone or joint decision | 0.91 | 0.70 | 1.20 | 0.512 | 0.93 | 0.71 | 1.21 | 0.572 | ||||
Pooled Household wealth index | ||||||||||||
Richest | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Richer | 1.03 | 0.79 | 1.35 | 0.805 | 1.03 | 0.79 | 1.35 | 0.813 | ||||
Middle | 1.37 | 1.13 | 1.66 | 0.002 | 1.36 | 1.12 | 1.66 | 0.002 | ||||
Poorer | 1.43 | 1.18 | 1.75 | <0.001 | 1.43 | 1.17 | 1.74 | <0.001 | ||||
Poorest | 1.65 | 1.31 | 2.06 | <0.001 | 1.64 | 1.31 | 2.05 | <0.001 | ||||
Source of drinking water | ||||||||||||
Not improved | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Improved | 1.02 | 0.90 | 1.14 | 0.790 | 1.02 | 0.90 | 1.15 | 0.744 | ||||
Type of toilet facility | ||||||||||||
Improved | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Unimproved | 1.00 | 0.86 | 1.16 | 0.950 | 1.00 | 0.86 | 1.15 | 0.963 | ||||
Combined mode and place of delivery | ||||||||||||
Caesarean and Health Facility | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Non and Health Facility | 1.27 | 0.97 | 1.67 | 0.085 | 1.27 | 0.97 | 1.67 | 0.086 | ||||
Non C and Home | 1.21 | 0.91 | 1.62 | 0.193 | 1.23 | 0.92 | 1.64 | 0.171 | ||||
Delivery Assistance | ||||||||||||
Health professional | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Traditional birth attendant | 1.03 | 0.90 | 1.17 | 0.674 | 1.02 | 0.90 | 1.16 | 0.735 | ||||
Other untrained & | 1.12 | 0.96 | 1.31 | 0.159 | 1.10 | 0.94 | 1.28 | 0.242 | ||||
Antenatal clinic visits | ||||||||||||
≥8 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
4 to 7 | 1.09 | 0.86 | 1.39 | 0.482 | 1.09 | 0.86 | 1.39 | 0.479 | ||||
1 to 3 | 1.41 | 1.05 | 1.88 | 0.021 | 1.41 | 1.05 | 1.88 | 0.022 | ||||
None | 1.17 | 0.95 | 1.45 | 0.141 | 1.20 | 0.97 | 1.49 | 0.096 | ||||
Media | ||||||||||||
Reads newspaper | ||||||||||||
Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Yes ++ | 1.18 | 0.98 | 1.43 | 0.085 | 1.18 | 0.98 | 1.43 | 0.087 | ||||
Listening radio | ||||||||||||
Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Yes ++ | 1.23 | 0.96 | 1.57 | 0.107 | 1.22 | 0.95 | 1.58 | 0.120 | ||||
Watches television | ||||||||||||
Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Yes ++ | 0.86 | 0.76 | 0.97 | 0.012 | 0.86 | 0.76 | 0.97 | 0.015 | ||||
Dietary diversity score | ||||||||||||
<4 food Inadequate | 1.00 | |||||||||||
4+ foods Adequate | 0.88 | 0.71 | 1.11 | 0.284 | ||||||||
Vitamin A supplement | ||||||||||||
Yes | 1.00 | |||||||||||
No | 1.01 | 0.92 | 1.10 | 0.837 | ||||||||
Sex of child | ||||||||||||
Female | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Male | 0.96 | 0.87 | 1.07 | 0.481 | ||||||||
Vaccination | ||||||||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Yes ** | 0.99 | 0.86 | 1.13 | 0.835 | ||||||||
Had diarrhoea recently | ||||||||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Yes | 1.21 | 1.03 | 1.42 | 0.018 | ||||||||
Had fever in last two weeks | ||||||||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Yes | 1.16 | 1.02 | 1.31 | 0.022 |
Variables | Model 1: Basic | Model 2: Basic and Underlying | Model 3: Basic, Underlying and Immediate | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | ||||
Countries | ||||||||||||
Maldives | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||||
India | 2.78 | 1.97 | 3.93 | <0.001 | 2.29 | 1.58 | 3.32 | <0.001 | 2.07 | 1.44 | 2.98 | <0.001 |
Bangladesh | 2.61 | 1.81 | 3.76 | <0.001 | 1.85 | 1.20 | 2.87 | 0.006 | 1.77 | 1.16 | 2.71 | 0.008 |
Nepal | 2.96 | 2.06 | 4.25 | <0.001 | 1.91 | 1.36 | 2.70 | <0.001 | 1.77 | 1.25 | 2.51 | 0.001 |
Pakistan | 2.61 | 1.77 | 3.85 | <0.001 | 2.47 | 1.71 | 3.57 | <0.001 | 2.28 | 1.57 | 3.31 | <0.001 |
Type of place of residence | ||||||||||||
Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||||
Rural | 1.64 | 1.45 | 1.85 | <0.001 | 1.13 | 1.01 | 1.25 | 0.028 | 1.11 | 1.00 | 1.23 | 0.056 |
Working status | ||||||||||||
Not working | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Working | 1.02 | 0.86 | 1.21 | 0.851 | 0.97 | 0.80 | 1.17 | 0.756 | ||||
Mother’s education | ||||||||||||
Secondary or higher | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Primary | 1.21 | 0.97 | 1.53 | 0.095 | 1.21 | 0.97 | 1.52 | 0.096 | ||||
No education | 1.55 | 1.31 | 1.83 | <0.001 | 1.59 | 1.34 | 1.88 | <0.001 | ||||
Maternal age at child’s birth | ||||||||||||
Less than 20 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
20–29 | 0.80 | 0.69 | 0.93 | 0.004 | 0.89 | 0.77 | 1.02 | 0.091 | ||||
30–39 | 0.87 | 0.52 | 1.46 | 0.596 | 1.02 | 0.61 | 1.69 | 0.950 | ||||
40+ | 0.81 | 0.44 | 1.51 | 0.513 | 0.99 | 0.54 | 1.80 | 0.967 | ||||
Mother’s age | ||||||||||||
15–24 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
25–34 | 1.14 | 1.02 | 1.26 | 0.018 | 1.01 | 0.91 | 1.12 | 0.877 | ||||
35–49 | 1.11 | 0.70 | 1.78 | 0.657 | 0.90 | 0.56 | 1.43 | 0.645 | ||||
Mother’s marital status | ||||||||||||
Currently married | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Formerly married $ | 1.01 | 0.73 | 1.39 | 0.958 | 0.98 | 0.72 | 1.33 | 0.886 | ||||
Maternal height | ||||||||||||
≥160 cm | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
155–159 | 1.36 | 1.14 | 1.64 | 0.001 | 1.36 | 1.12 | 1.64 | 0.002 | ||||
150–154 | 2.03 | 1.73 | 2.38 | <0.001 | 2.03 | 1.72 | 2.40 | <0.001 | ||||
145–149 | 2.88 | 2.38 | 3.49 | <0.001 | 2.87 | 2.37 | 3.48 | <0.001 | ||||
<145 cm | 3.73 | 2.95 | 4.72 | <0.001 | 3.80 | 2.99 | 4.82 | <0.001 | ||||
Maternal BMI (kg/m2) | ||||||||||||
25+ | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
19–25 | 1.06 | 0.85 | 1.32 | 0.615 | 1.09 | 0.89 | 1.34 | 0.405 | ||||
<= 18.5 | 1.31 | 1.08 | 1.58 | 0.005 | 1.36 | 1.14 | 1.63 | 0.001 | ||||
Combined birth rank and birth interval | ||||||||||||
1st birth rank | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
2nd/3rd birth rank, more than 2 years interval | 1.16 | 1.05 | 1.27 | 0.003 | 1.19 | 1.07 | 1.31 | 0.001 | ||||
2nd/3rd birth rank, less than or equal 2 | 1.62 | 1.12 | 1.57 | <0.001 | 1.67 | 1.43 | 1.94 | <0.001 | ||||
4th birth rank, more than 2 yrs interval | 1.32 | 1.12 | 1.57 | 0.001 | 1.42 | 1.21 | 1.66 | <0.001 | ||||
4th birth rank, less than or equal to 2 | 1.44 | 1.17 | 1.76 | <0.001 | 1.50 | 1.23 | 1.84 | <0.001 | ||||
Paternal occupation | ||||||||||||
Non-agriculture | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Agriculture | 1.13 | 0.97 | 1.32 | 0.114 | 1.14 | 0.97 | 1.33 | 0.101 | ||||
Not working | 1.09 | 0.95 | 1.26 | 0.222 | 1.07 | 0.93 | 1.23 | 0.343 | ||||
Power over earnings (Woman has money autonomy) | ||||||||||||
By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Woman alone or joint decision | 1.23 | 1.01 | 1.49 | 0.036 | 1.22 | 1.00 | 1.49 | 0.053 | ||||
Power over Household decision making | ||||||||||||
By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Woman alone or joint decision | 0.87 | 0.70 | 1.07 | 0.185 | 0.85 | 0.69 | 1.06 | 0.151 | ||||
Woman has health care autonomy | ||||||||||||
By Husband alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Woman alone or joint decision | 0.92 | 0.74 | 1.13 | 0.412 | 0.92 | 0.74 | 1.13 | 0.416 | ||||
Pooled Household wealth index | ||||||||||||
Richest | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Richer | 0.99 | 0.78 | 1.24 | 0.899 | 0.99 | 0.78 | 1.24 | 0.899 | ||||
Middle | 1.22 | 1.02 | 1.46 | 0.026 | 1.22 | 1.02 | 1.45 | 0.033 | ||||
Poorer | 1.25 | 1.03 | 1.53 | 0.026 | 1.24 | 1.01 | 1.52 | 0.036 | ||||
Poorest | 1.40 | 1.13 | 1.72 | 0.002 | 1.39 | 1.13 | 1.73 | 0.002 | ||||
Source of drinking water | ||||||||||||
Not improved | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Improved | 1.08 | 0.98 | 1.20 | 0.127 | 1.04 | 0.93 | 1.16 | 0.521 | ||||
Type of toilet facility | ||||||||||||
Improved | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Unimproved | 0.99 | 0.85 | 1.16 | 0.902 | 1.02 | 0.88 | 1.18 | 0.839 | ||||
Combined mode and place of delivery | ||||||||||||
Caesarean and Health Facility | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Non and Health Facility | 1.39 | 1.08 | 1.80 | 0.011 | 1.37 | 1.08 | 1.75 | 0.011 | ||||
Non C and Home | 1.43 | 1.10 | 1.86 | 0.008 | 1.43 | 1.11 | 1.84 | 0.006 | ||||
Delivery Assistance | ||||||||||||
Health professional | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Traditional birth attendant | 0.94 | 0.83 | 1.06 | 0.313 | 0.94 | 0.83 | 1.06 | 0.321 | ||||
Other untrained & | 1.04 | 0.93 | 1.16 | 0.468 | 1.04 | 0.93 | 1.17 | 0.446 | ||||
Antenatal clinic visits | ||||||||||||
≥8 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
4 to 7 | 1.09 | 0.91 | 1.31 | 0.350 | 1.07 | 0.90 | 1.28 | 0.432 | ||||
1 to 3 | 1.34 | 1.08 | 1.66 | 0.008 | 1.35 | 1.09 | 1.67 | 0.005 | ||||
None | 1.33 | 1.16 | 1.53 | <0.001 | 1.22 | 1.05 | 1.42 | 0.008 | ||||
Media | ||||||||||||
Reads newspaper | ||||||||||||
Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Yes ++ | 1.15 | 0.97 | 1.37 | 0.106 | 1.15 | 0.97 | 1.36 | 0.111 | ||||
Listening radio | ||||||||||||
Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Yes ++ | 1.14 | 0.90 | 1.44 | 0.264 | 1.13 | 0.90 | 1.41 | 0.286 | ||||
Watches television | ||||||||||||
Not all | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Yes ++ | 0.95 | 0.85 | 1.06 | 0.323 | 0.92 | 0.82 | 1.03 | 0.131 | ||||
Dietary diversity score | ||||||||||||
<4 food Inadequate | 1.00 | |||||||||||
4+ foods Adequate | 1.03 | 0.88 | 1.19 | 0.741 | ||||||||
Vitamin A supplement | ||||||||||||
Yes | 1.00 | |||||||||||
No | 0.94 | 0.86 | 1.02 | 0.117 | ||||||||
Child age in months | ||||||||||||
0–23 months | 1.00 | |||||||||||
24–59 months | 1.40 | 1.26 | 1.56 | <0.001 | ||||||||
Sex of child | ||||||||||||
Female | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Male | 1.05 | 0.96 | 1.14 | 0.302 | ||||||||
Vaccination | ||||||||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Yes ** | 1.23 | 1.10 | 1.37 | <0.001 | ||||||||
Had diarrhoea recently | ||||||||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Yes | 1.12 | 0.99 | 1.27 | 0.060 | ||||||||
Had fever in last two weeks | ||||||||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Yes | 1.06 | 0.96 | 1.17 | 0.240 |
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Wali, N.; Agho, K.E.; Renzaho, A.M.N. Factors Associated with Stunting among Children under 5 Years in Five South Asian Countries (2014–2018): Analysis of Demographic Health Surveys. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3875. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123875
Wali N, Agho KE, Renzaho AMN. Factors Associated with Stunting among Children under 5 Years in Five South Asian Countries (2014–2018): Analysis of Demographic Health Surveys. Nutrients. 2020; 12(12):3875. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123875
Chicago/Turabian StyleWali, Nidhi, Kingsley E. Agho, and Andre M.N. Renzaho. 2020. "Factors Associated with Stunting among Children under 5 Years in Five South Asian Countries (2014–2018): Analysis of Demographic Health Surveys" Nutrients 12, no. 12: 3875. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123875