Comparison of Vitamin D and 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations in Human Breast Milk between 1989 and 2016–2017
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Breast Milk Samples
2.3. Sample Preparation
2.4. LC-MS/MS
2.5. Lifestyle Parameters of the Lactating Women in 2016–2017
2.6. Calculation of Antirachitic Activity
2.7. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Comparison of Breast Milk Vitamin D and 25OHD Concentrations between 1989 and 2016–2017
3.2. Effects of Lifestyle Parameters on Breast Milk Vitamin D and 25OHD Concentrations
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Participants | Total | Regions | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kanto (35–37° N) | Kyushu (31–34° N) | Hokkaido (41–46° N) | ||||||||||
N | Age | N | Age | N | Age | N | Age | |||||
<1989> | ||||||||||||
All | 72 | 27.7 | ±3.8 | 28 | 26.8 | ±3.7 | 24 | 28.0 | ±3.5 | 20 | 28.8 | ±4.2 |
Summer | 23 | 27.3 | ±4.3 | 10 | 26.2 | ±4.8 | 9 | 28.1 | ±3.7 | 4 | 28.5 | ±4.4 |
Winter | 49 | 27.9 | ±3.6 | 18 | 27.2 | ±3.0 | 15 | 27.9 | ±3.6 | 16 | 28.8 | ±4.3 |
<2016~2017> | ||||||||||||
All | 90 | 30.3 | ±3.7 | 34 | 30.5 | ±3.6 | 28 | 30.3 | ±3.5 | 28 | 30.3 | ±4.2 |
Summer | 48 | 30.2 | ±3.6 | 20 | 31.1 | ±3.6 | 13 | 29.6 | ±3.0 | 15 | 29.6 | ±4.1 |
Winter | 42 | 30.5 | ±3.9 | 14 | 29.6 | ±3.7 | 15 | 30.8 | ±4.0 | 13 | 31.1 | ±4.3 |
Survey Year | Vitamin D3 | Vitamin D2 | Total Vitamin D | 25OHD3 | 25OHD2 | Total 25OHD |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | |
<1989> | 0.252 ± 0.477 | 0.073 ± 0.120 | 0.325 ± 0.492 | 0.322 ± 0.312 | 0.006 ± 0.014 | 0.328 ± 0.319 |
ND: 5% | ND: 22% | ND: 0% | ND: 82% | |||
<2016–2017> | 0.161 ± 0.174 | 0.045 ± 0.138 | 0.206 ± 0.238 | 0.261 ± 0.130 | 0.018 ± 0.035 | 0.279 ± 0.133 |
ND: 0% | ND: 3.2% | ND: 4.4% | ND: 16% | |||
p * | 0.094 | ― | 0.044 | 0.094 | ― | 0.191 |
Parameters | Mean (SD) or N (%) | |
---|---|---|
Maternal height (cm) | 158.4 | (5.3) |
Maternal body weight (kg) | 54.1 | (6.9) |
Maternal body mass index (BMI: kg/m2) | 21.6 | (2.7) |
Parity (times) | 1.5 | (0.5) |
Vitamin D intake (μg/day) | 11.9 | (7.1) |
Daily outdoor activity (min/day) | 101.2 | (70.8) |
Suntan in the last 12 months [Yes] | 21 | (23%) |
Behavior to avoid sunlight exposure [Yes] (e.g., using parasol or walking in the shade) | 45 | (50%) |
Frequency of sunscreen use per week | ||
1: 7 days | 18 | (20%) |
2: 5–6 days | 16 | (18%) |
3: 3–4 days | 9 | (10%) |
4: 1–2 days | 20 | (22%) |
5: 0 day | 27 | (30%) |
Sunlight exposure time per day in the last one week | ||
1: >30 min | 39 | (43%) |
2: 15–30 min | 27 | (30%) |
3: 5–15 min | 17 | (19%) |
4: <5 min | 7 | (8%) |
Parameters | Vitamin D3 Concentration | 25OHD3 Concentration | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | R2 | P | β | R2 | P | |
Age (years) a | −2.6 × 10−3 | 0.003 | 0.600 | 1.7 × 10−3 | 0.002 | 0.649 |
BMI (kg/m2) a | 3.8 × 10−4 | <0.001 | 0.956 | 2.7 × 10−3 | 0.003 | 0.605 |
Vitamin D intake (µg/day) a | 2.1 × 10−3 | 0.007 | 0.429 | −5.3 × 10−4 | 0.001 | 0.784 |
Daily outdoor activity (min) a | 6.0 × 10−4 | 0.059 | 0.021 | 1.4 × 10−4 | 0.006 | 0.470 |
Season [Winter-Summer] b | −0.113 | 0.107 | 0.002 | −0.115 | 0.196 | <0.001 |
Suntan in last 12 months [Yes-No] b | 0.107 | 0.069 | 0.012 | −0.007 | 0.001 | 0.824 |
Regions [Kanto, Kyusyu, Hokkaido] b | — | 0.008 | 0.697 | — | 0.045 | 0.135 |
Frequency of sunscreen use per week [1: 7 days, 2: 5–6 days, 3: 3–4 days, 4: 1–2 days, 5: 0 days] b | — | 0.043 | 0.433 | — | 0.055 | 0.298 |
Parameters | Vitamin D3 Concentration | 25OHD3 Concentration | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | R2 | P | β | R2 | P | |
Season [Winter-Summer] | −0.050 | 0.107 | 0.002 | −0.060 | 0.196 | <0.001 |
Daily outdoor activity time (min) | 6.0 × 10−4 | 0.059 | 0.015 | 1.5 × 104 | 0.006 | 0.410 |
Suntan in last 12 months [Yes-No] | −0.042 | 0.040 | 0.040 | −0.018 | 0.013 | 0.232 |
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Tsugawa, N.; Nishino, M.; Kuwabara, A.; Ogasawara, H.; Kamao, M.; Kobayashi, S.; Yamamura, J.; Higurashi, S. Comparison of Vitamin D and 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations in Human Breast Milk between 1989 and 2016–2017. Nutrients 2021, 13, 573. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020573
Tsugawa N, Nishino M, Kuwabara A, Ogasawara H, Kamao M, Kobayashi S, Yamamura J, Higurashi S. Comparison of Vitamin D and 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations in Human Breast Milk between 1989 and 2016–2017. Nutrients. 2021; 13(2):573. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020573
Chicago/Turabian StyleTsugawa, Naoko, Mayu Nishino, Akiko Kuwabara, Honami Ogasawara, Maya Kamao, Shunjiro Kobayashi, Junichi Yamamura, and Satoshi Higurashi. 2021. "Comparison of Vitamin D and 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations in Human Breast Milk between 1989 and 2016–2017" Nutrients 13, no. 2: 573. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020573