Association of Coffee Consumption and Its Types According to Addition of Sugar and Creamer with Metabolic Syndrome Incidence in a Korean Population from the Health Examinees (HEXA) Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Assessment of Coffee Consumption
2.3. Definition of Metabolic Syndrome
2.4. Other Variables
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Coffee Type | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
None | Black | 3-in-1 | Others | p Value | |
Men (N = 3897) | |||||
N (incidence %) | 276 (3.99%) | 90 (3.33%) | 610 (5.41%) | 2921 (5.20%) | |
Age (years) | 55.69 ± 0.50 a | 53.94 ± 0.94 b | 52.37 ± 0.33 c | 53.71 ± 0.16 bc | 0.0006 |
40–49 | 68 (5.16%) | 31 (2.35%) | 243 (18.42%) | 977 (74.07%) | 0.0004 |
50–59 | 107 (7.28%) | 31 (2.11%) | 233 (15.86%) | 1098 (74.74%) | |
60–69 | 95 (9.07%) | 26 (2.48%) | 127 (12.13%) | 799 (76.31%) | |
70–79 | 6 (9.68%) | 2 (3.23%) | 7 (11.29%) | 47 (75.81%) | |
BMI (kg/m2) | 21.85 ± 0.13 b | 22.89 ± 0.22 a | 22.91 ± 0.09 a | 22.68 ± 0.04 a | <0.0001 |
<18.5 | 23 (8.33%) | 2 (2.22%) | 15 (2.46%) | 95 (3.25%) | <0.0001 |
18.5–25 | 227 (82.25%) | 80 (88.89%) | 472 (77.38%) | 2328 (79.70%) | |
≥25 | 26 (9.42%) | 8 (8.89%) | 123 (20.16%) | 498 (17.05%) | |
Waist circumference (cm) | 79.00 ± 0.36 b | 80.37 ± 0.54 a | 80.84 ± 0.21 a | 80.37 ± 0.10 a | 0.0003 |
Smoking | <0.0001 | ||||
Non-smoker | 145 (52.54%) | 34 (37.78%) | 223 (36.56%) | 982 (33.62%) | |
Past smoker | 110 (39.86%) | 32 (35.56%) | 223 (36.56%) | 1132 (38.75%) | |
Current smoker | 18 (6.52%) | 24 (26.67%) | 162 (26.56%) | 795 (27.22%) | |
Physical activity (yes, %) | 128 (46.38%) | 38 (42.22%) | 244 (40.00%) | 1142 (39.10%) | 0.1440 |
Educational level | <0.0001 | ||||
Under middle school | 49 (17.75%) | 17 (18.89%) | 65 (10.66%) | 627 (21.47%) | |
High school | 106 (38.41%) | 33 (36.67%) | 208 (34.10%) | 1118 (38.27%) | |
College or above | 117 (42.39%) | 40 (44.44%) | 333 (54.59%) | 1149 (39.34%) | |
Alcohol consumption (yes, %) | 150 (54.35%) | 64 (71.11%) | 472 (77.38%) | 2112 (72.30%) | <0.0001 |
Biomarkers | |||||
TG (mg/dL) | 83.42 ± 1.72 b | 91.16 ± 3.34 a | 88.48 ± 1.15 ab | 87.94 ± 0.56 ab | 0.1802 |
HDL-C (mg/dL) | 54.80 ± 0.69 a | 55.12 ± 1.15 a | 55.21 ± 0.41 a | 54.60 ± 0.20 a | 0.6240 |
FPG (mg/dL) | 87.92 ± 0.42 a | 88.06 ± 0.82 a | 87.95 ± 0.28 a | 88.28 ± 0.12 a | 0.5657 |
SBP (mmHg) | 115.05 ± 0.51 a | 114.59 ± 0.86 a | 114.91 ± 0.34 a | 114.74 ± 0.16 a | 0.8810 |
DBP (mmHg) | 72.53 ± 0.42 a | 72.37 ± 0.66 a | 72.79 ± 0.27 a | 72.18 ± 0.13 a | 0.3093 |
Women (N = 10,725) | |||||
N (incidence %) | 1119 (3.13%) | 548 (2.55%) | 1130 (2.39%) | 7928 (3.33%) | |
Age (years) | 52.37 ± 0.21 a | 48.63 ± 0.29 bc | 48.44 ± 0.19 c | 49.08 ± 0.07 b | <0.0001 |
40–49 | 401 (6.95%) | 319 (5.53%) | 669 (11.60%) | 4379 (75.92%) | <0.0001 |
50–59 | 523 (12.93%) | 184 (4.55%) | 390 (9.64%) | 2948 (72.88%) | |
60–69 | 188 (21.20%) | 44 (4.96%) | 68 (7.67%) | 587 (66.18%) | |
70–79 | 7 (28.00%) | 1 (4.00%) | 3 (12.00%) | 14 (56.00%) | |
BMI (kg/m2) | 21.20 ± 0.06 c | 21.62 ± 0.08 b | 21.90 ± 0.06 a | 21.74 ± 0.02 ab | <0.0001 |
<18.5 | 97 (8.67%) | 24 (4.38%) | 35 (3.10%) | 382 (4.82%) | <0.0001 |
18.5–25 | 980 (87.58%) | 487 (88.87%) | 985 (87.17%) | 6902 (87.06%) | |
≥25 | 42 (3.75%) | 37 (6.75%) | 110 (9.73%) | 644 (8.12%) | |
Waist circumference (cm) | 71.59 ± 0.15 b | 80.37 ± 0.54 b | 72.13 ± 0.14 a | 71.83 ± 0.05 ab | 0.0046 |
Smoking status | 0.0005 | ||||
Non-smoker | 1107 (98.93%) | 523 (95.44%) | 1104 (97.70%) | 7670 (96.75%) | |
Past smoker | 5 (0.45%) | 10 (1.82%) | 5 (0.44%) | 78 (0.98%) | |
Current smoker | 5 (0.45%) | 13 (2.37%) | 20 (1.77%) | 140 (1.77%) | |
Physical activity (yes, %) | 476 (42.54%) | 233 (42.52%) | 413 (36.55%) | 3155 (39.80%) | 0.0092 |
Educational level | <0.0001 | ||||
Under middle school | 339 (30.29%) | 106 (19.34%) | 155 (13.72%) | 1619 (20.42%) | |
High school | 492 (43.97%) | 267 (48.72%) | 561 (49.65%) | 3933 (49.61%) | |
College or above | 272 (24.31%) | 174 (31.75%) | 405 (35.84%) | 2316 (29.21%) | |
Alcohol consumption (yes, %) | 174 (15.55%) | 232 (42.34%) | 466 (41.24%) | 3032 (38.24%) | <0.0001 |
Biomarkers | |||||
TG (mg/dL) | 77.43 ± 0.84 a | 74.07 ± 1.09 b | 73.31 ± 0.84 b | 74.91 ± 0.31 b | 0.0636 |
HDL-C (mg/dL) | 63.41 ± 0.31 b | 64.83 ± 0.46 a | 64.06 ± 0.31 ab | 64.20 ± 0.12 ab | 0.3941 |
FPG (mg/dL) | 86.13 ± 0.21 a | 86.00 ± 0.29 a | 85.86 ± 0.20 a | 86.02 ± 0.08 a | 0.8706 |
SBP (mmHg) | 111.63 ± 0.30 a | 110.99 ± 0.40 ab | 110.64 ± 0.28 b | 111.15 ± 0.11 ab | 0.3168 |
DBP (mmHg) | 69.66 ± 0.22 a | 68.79 ± 0.30 b | 69.45 ± 0.22 a | 69.47 ± 0.08 a | 0.1263 |
Coffee Consumption, Cups/Day | p for Trend | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | ≤1 | 1–3 | >3 | ||
Men (N = 3897) | 276 | 1071 | 1853 | 697 | |
Median, range (cups/day) | 0, 0–0 | 0.75, 0.01–1.00 | 1.50, 1.04–3.00 | 3.50, 3.25–8.50 | |
MetS | 11 (3.99%) | 53 (4.95%) | 101 (5.45%) | 34 (4.88%) | |
Ref | 0.771 (0.399–1.491) | 0.823 (0.437–1.550) | 0.620 (0.305–1.258) | 0.1844 | |
Abdominal obesity | 16 (5.80%) | 78 (7.28%) | 188 (10.15%) | 68 (9.76%) | |
Ref | 0.870 (0.503–1.504) | 1.207 (0.717–2.031) | 1.120 (0.634–1.978) | 0.3118 | |
High triglyceride | 24 (8.70%) | 123 (11.48%) | 263 (14.19%) | 101 (14.49%) | |
Ref | 0.975 (0.628–1.514) | 1.117 (0.732–1.704) | 0.987 (0.625–1.559) | 0.8609 | |
High blood pressure | 66 (23.91%) | 258 (24.09%) | 475 (25.63%) | 165 (23.67%) | |
Ref | 0.788 (0.600–1.035) | 0.874 (0.673–1.136) | 0.855 (0.636–1.149) | 0.9718 | |
Low HDL-cholesterol | 18 (6.52%) | 41 (3.83%) | 74 (3.99%) | 36 (5.16%) | |
Ref | 0.445 (0.254–0.780) | 0.507 (0.299–0.859) | 0.611 (0.335–1.113) | <0.0001 | |
High fasting plasma glucose | 78 (28.26%) | 271 (25.30%) | 505 (27.25%) | 192 (27.55%) | |
0.694 (0.538–0.895) | 0.763 (0.598–0.972) | 0.783 (0.596–1.030) | 0.9599 | ||
Women (N = 10,725) | 1119 | 3390 | 5234 | 982 | |
Median, range (cups/day) | 0, 0–0 | 0.75, 0.01–1.00 | 1.50, 1.07–3.00 | 3.50, 3.25–8.50 | |
MetS | 35 (3.13%) | 99 (2.92%) | 171 (3.27%) | 35 (3.56%) | |
Ref | 0.703 (0.475–1.041) | 0.935 (0.639–1.367) | 1.200 (0.730–1.972) | 0.0509 | |
Abdominal obesity | 164 (14.66%) | 624 (18.41%) | 985 (18.82%) | 192 (19.55%) | |
Ref | 0.974 (0.818–1.159) | 1.108 (0.934–1.315) | 1.234 (0.992–1.535) | 0.0043 | |
High triglyceride | 96 (8.58%) | 277 (8.17%) | 377 (7.20%) | 58 (5.91%) | |
Ref | 0.838 (0.662–1.061) | 0.850 (0.673–1.074) | 0.720 (0.511–1.013) | 0.1173 | |
High blood pressure | 160 (14.30%) | 463 (13.66%) | 739 (14.12%) | 160 (16.29%) | |
Ref | 0.885 (0.737–1.062) | 1.151 (0.964–1.374) | 1.588 (1.260–2.000) | <0.0001 | |
Low HDL-cholesterol | 83 (7.42%) | 233 (6.87%) | 348 (6.65%) | 55 (5.60%) | |
Ref | 0.828 (0.642–1.068) | 0.977 (0.762–1.252) | 0.883 (0.618–1.261) | 0.8671 | |
High fasting plasma glucose | 135 (12.06%) | 451 (13.30%) | 697 (13.32%) | 145 (14.77%) | |
Ref | 1.027 (0.845–1.248) | 1.248 (1.032–1.510) | 1.526 (1.193–1.953) | <0.0001 |
COFFEE TYPE | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
None | Black | 3-in-1 | Others | |
Men (N = 3897) | 276 | 90 | 610 | 2921 |
MetS | 11 (3.99%) | 3 (3.33%) | 33 (5.41%) | 152 (5.20%) |
Ref | 0.649 (0.179–2.357) | 0.806 (0.398–1.635) | 0.776 (0.416–1.448) | |
Abdominal obesity | 16 (5.80%) | 6 (6.67%) | 52 (8.52%) | 276 (9.45%) |
Ref | 1.001 (0.388–2.583) | 1.011 (0.566–1.807) | 1.093 (0.654–1.826) | |
High triglyceride | 24 (8.70%) | 14 (15.56%) | 82 (13.44%) | 391 (13.39%) |
Ref | 1.609 (0.829–3.121) | 1.040 (0.654–1.654) | 1.038 (0.685–1.574) | |
High blood pressure | 66 (23.91%) | 30 (33.33%) | 148 (24.26%) | 720 (24.65%) |
Ref | 1.519 (0.984–2.343) | 0.848 (0.630–1.142) | 0.823 (0.637–1.063) | |
Low HDL-cholesterol | 18 (6.52%) | 7 (7.78%) | 19 (3.11%) | 125 (4.28%) |
Ref | 1.358 (0.561–3.288) | 0.423 (0.218–0.824) | 0.493 (0.298–0.817) | |
High fasting plasma glucose | 78 (28.26%) | 24 (26.67%) | 147 (24.10%) | 797 (27.29%) |
Ref | 1.008 (0.637–1.596) | 0.659 (0.497–0.874) | 0.749 (0.592–0.949) | |
Women (N = 10,725) | 1119 | 548 | 1130 | 7928 |
MetS | 35 (3.13%) | 14 (2.55%) | 27 (2.39%) | 264 (3.33%) |
Ref | 0.652 (0.335–1.269) | 0.653 (0.390–1.093) | 0.864 (0.600–1.243) | |
Abdominal obesity | 164 (14.66%) | 91 (16.61%) | 212 (18.76%) | 1498 (18.90%) |
Ref | 0.946 (0.721–1.240) | 1.077 (0.874–1.327) | 1.055 (0.895–1.244) | |
High triglyceride | 96 (8.58%) | 35 (6.39%) | 79 (6.99%) | 598 (7.54%) |
Ref | 0.952 (0.642–1.411) | 0.798 (0.588–1.084) | 0.836 (0.670–1.045) | |
High blood pressure | 160 (14.30%) | 77 (14.05%) | 165 (14.60%) | 1120 (14.13%) |
Ref | 1.442 (1.094–1.900) | 1.111 (0.888–1.388) | 1.019 (0.860–1.208) | |
Low HDL-cholesterol | 83 (7.42%) | 32 (5.84%) | 72 (6.37%) | 532 (6.71%) |
Ref | 1.085 (0.717–1.641) | 0.895 (0.647–1.237) | 0.894 (0.705–1.135) | |
High fasting plasma glucose | 135 (12.06%) | 73 (13.32%) | 142 (12.57%) | 1078 (13.60%) |
Ref | 1.558 (1.167–2.081) | 1.102 (0.866–1.403) | 1.147 (0.955–1.378) |
Non–Non | Non–Coffee | Coffee–Non | Coffee–Coffee | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Men (N = 3897) | 276 | 262 | 200 | 3159 |
MetS | 11 (3.99%) | 18 (6.87%) | 11 (5.50%) | 159 (5.03%) |
Ref | 1.241 (0.582–2.649) | 0.941 (0.397–2.229) | 0.724 (0.388–1.354) | |
Abdominal obesity | 16 (5.80%) | 22 (8.40%) | 13 (6.50%) | 299 (9.47%) |
Ref | 1.208 (0.629–2.321) | 0.895 (0.421–1.904) | 1.085 (0.648–1.815) | |
High triglyceride | 24 (8.70%) | 35 (13.36%) | 23 (11.50%) | 429 (13.58%) |
Ref | 1.063 (0.631–1.791) | 1.063 (0.599–1.888) | 1.048 (0.691–1.589) | |
High blood pressure | 66 (23.91%) | 67 (25.57%) | 50 (25.00%) | 781 (24.72%) |
Ref | 0.745 (0.529–1.049) | 0.839 (0.578–1.217) | 0.853 (0.660–1.101) | |
Low HDL-cholesterol | 18 (6.52%) | 9 (3.44%) | 13 (6.50%) | 129 (4.08%) |
Ref | 0.379 (0.169–0.849) | 0.832 (0.405–1.709) | 0.488 (0.293–0.811) | |
High fasting plasma glucose | 78 (28.26%) | 73 (27.86%) | 47 (23.50%) | 848 (26.84%) |
Ref | 0.683 (0.495–0.941) | 0.665 (0.461–0.959) | 0.754 (0.595–0.955) | |
Women (N = 10,725) | 1119 | 697 | 729 | 8180 |
MetS | 35 (3.13%) | 19 (2.73%) | 23 (3.16%) | 263 (3.22%) |
Ref | 0.715 (0.408–1.251) | 0.821 (0.483–1.396) | 0.856 (0.593–1.237) | |
Abdominal obesity | 164 (14.66%) | 127 (18.22%) | 129 (17.70%) | 1545 (18.89%) |
Ref | 1.027 (0.814–1.295) | 1.000 (0.792–1.261) | 1.064 (0.902–1.257) | |
High triglyceride | 96 (8.58%) | 61 (8.75%) | 55 (7.54%) | 596 (7.29%) |
Ref | 0.943 (0.683–1.301) | 0.761 (0.545–1.062) | 0.834 (0.666–1.043) | |
High blood pressure | 160 (14.30%) | 103 (14.78%) | 108 (14.81%) | 1151 (14.07%) |
Ref | 0.978 (0.763–1.254) | 0.935 (0.732–1.195) | 1.070 (0.901–1.270) | |
Low HDL-cholesterol | 83 (7.42%) | 44 (6.31%) | 54 (7.41%) | 538 (6.58%) |
Ref | 0.812 (0.563–1.172) | 0.885 (0.627–1.249) | 0.916 (0.720–1.164) | |
High fasting plasma glucose | 135 (12.06%) | 94 (13.49%) | 100 (13.72%) | 1099 (13.44%) |
Ref | 1.084 (0.832–1.412) | 1.022 (0.788–1.325) | 1.189 (0.988–1.430) |
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Tan, L.-J.; Jeon, H.J.; Park, S.; Kim, S.-A.; Lim, K.; Chung, S.; Chang, P.-S.; Lee, J.-k.; Kang, D.; Shin, S. Association of Coffee Consumption and Its Types According to Addition of Sugar and Creamer with Metabolic Syndrome Incidence in a Korean Population from the Health Examinees (HEXA) Study. Nutrients 2021, 13, 920. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030920
Tan L-J, Jeon HJ, Park S, Kim S-A, Lim K, Chung S, Chang P-S, Lee J-k, Kang D, Shin S. Association of Coffee Consumption and Its Types According to Addition of Sugar and Creamer with Metabolic Syndrome Incidence in a Korean Population from the Health Examinees (HEXA) Study. Nutrients. 2021; 13(3):920. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030920
Chicago/Turabian StyleTan, Li-Juan, Hye Joo Jeon, SoHyun Park, Seong-Ah Kim, Kyungjoon Lim, Sangwon Chung, Pahn-Shick Chang, Jong-koo Lee, Daehee Kang, and Sangah Shin. 2021. "Association of Coffee Consumption and Its Types According to Addition of Sugar and Creamer with Metabolic Syndrome Incidence in a Korean Population from the Health Examinees (HEXA) Study" Nutrients 13, no. 3: 920. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030920