Assessment of the Risk of Contamination of Food for Infants and Toddlers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Toxic Elements
3.2. Acrylamide
3.3. Bisphenol
3.4. Dioxins
3.5. Furan
3.6. Mycotoxins
3.7. Nitrates and Nitrites
3.8. Pesticide Residues
3.9. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH)
3.10. 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-Diol (3-MCPD) and Glycidyl Esters
3.11. Mineral Oil Hydrocarbons (MOHs)
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type of Contamination | Safe Contamination Levels |
---|---|
Acrylamide | RfD = 2 μg/kg/bw |
Arsenic | PTWI = 15 μg/kg/bw |
Bisphenol A | TDI = 50 μg/kg/bw |
Cadmium | MTD = 4.1 μg/day, PTWI = 7 μg/kg/bw |
Dioxins | TDI = 4 μg/kg/bw, TWI = 2 pg/kg/bw |
Furan | ADI = 2 μg/kg/bw, RfD = 1 μg/kg/bw |
Lead | MTD = 0.5 μg/day, PTWI = 25 μg/kg/bw |
Mercury | PTWI = 1.6 μg/kg/bw |
Mycotoxins | MCLaflatoxins = 50 ng/kg/bw |
Nitrates, nitrites | ADItotal = 0–3.7mg/kg/bw |
Residue pesticides | MRL = 0.1 mg/kg/bw |
Type of Contamination | Number of Samples | Type of Food Sample | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
Pb, Cd As, Hg | 76 | c Infant formula and milk | No sample was contaminated | Norway [24] |
Pb and Cd | 564 | a Infant food | Contamination of 37% of samples with Pb and 57% with Cd, RfD exceeded by 0–3%, Pb and Cd by 6–23% | Miami, USA [10] |
Pb and Cd | 114 | b Baby desserts, juices, dinners | No sample exceeded the MCL | Poland [12] |
Pb and Cd | 55 | c Infant formula and milk | The median concentration of Pb exceeded the MCL | Brazil [13] |
Pb and Cd | 26 | a Infant food, b commercial food | Excess of Pb in 96% samples and Cd in 53% of samples | Nigeria [14] |
Pb and As | 90 | a Infant food | Pb only in 2 samples, As in 3 samples, RfD exceeding of Cd and Pb | Spain [11] |
Hg | 291 | a Infant food and b commercial food for toddlers | No sample exceeded the MCL | France [16] |
Hg | 150 | c Infant formula | No sample exceeded the standards | Canada [19] |
Hg | 45 | b Commercial food for toddlers | 66% of fish samples exceeded the MRL | Menorca, Spain [17] |
As | 48 | b Commercial food for toddlers | 91% of samples contained inorganic As, 100% exceeded total As | Columbia [22] |
As | 39 | b Commercial food for toddlers | Contamination of 75% of samples, exceeding the EU maximum levels | Australia [21] |
Cd | 18 | c Infant food | Cd was exceeded in rice-based products | Sweden [23] |
ESTIMATION OF INTAKE | ||||
Pb, Cd and Hg | 119 | b Commercial food for toddlers | Cd and Pb concentrations exceeded TWI (35%, 42%), Hg did not exceed TWI | Korea [18] |
Pb and Cd | 190 | c Infant formula | 1 sample exceeded the PTWI | Nigeria [9] |
Cd and Hg | 43 | b Commercial food for toddlers | No sample exceeded the PTWI | Tanzania [21] |
Hg | 87 | a Infant food | No sample exceeded the PTWI | Portugal [20] |
Type of Contamination | Number of Samples | Type of Food Sample | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
141 | a Infant food, c commercial food | 7% exceeded the RfD | France [26] | |
Acrylamide | 141 | a Infant food, b commercial food for toddlers | Detected in 80% of samples, exceeded the RfD | France [27] |
70 | a Infant food, c commercial food | Exceedance of RfD in baby food | Estonia [28] | |
ESTIMATION OF INTAKE | ||||
Acrylamide | 2517 | a Infant food and c commercial food | Exposure of children twice as high as that of adults | USA [25] |
111 | a Infant food | Average intake by infants and children exceeded RfD | Poland [29] |
Type of Contamination | Number of Samples | Type of Food Sample | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
Bisphenol A | 154 | b Commercial food for toddlers, d commercial food | Detected in 36% of infant food samples, no TDI exceeded | China [33] |
122 | a Jarred infant food | Detected in 81% of samples, no MDL exceeded | Canada [30] | |
103 | Human milk and c infant formula | Detected in 38% of infant food samples, no RfD exceeded | Spain [31] | |
76 | c Infant formula | None detected | China [35] | |
68 | c Infant formula | No bisphenol exceedances, no RfD exceeded | India [34] | |
50 | c Infant formula | Detected in 60% of infant formula samples | Italy [32] |
Type of Contamination | Number of Samples | Type of Food Sample | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
Dioxins | 163 | Commercial food, human milk, infant formula | No exceedance of the upper limit of the standard | Greece [40] |
ESTIMATION OF INTAKE | ||||
Dioxins | 180 | a Infant food, b commercial food for toddlers | TDI exceeded in children of 7–12 months by 4.5%, in 13–36-month- olds by 5.1–7.4% | France [41] |
63 | a Infant food, b commercial food for toddlers | Consumption is below the TWI | Italy [42] | |
60 | a Infant food, c infant formula | No exceedance of the TDI in baby food | Germany [39] | |
16 | a Infant food | No exceedance of the TDI in baby food | Spain [37] |
Type of Contamination | Number of Samples | Type of Food Sample | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
Furan | 134 | a Infant food, b commercial food for toddlers | Furan found in 84% of samples | France [43] |
101 | b Commercial food for toddlers | Contamination of 12% of samples | Taiwan [48] | |
ESTIMATION OF INTAKE | ||||
Furan | 301 | a Infant food | EDI exceeded reference dose | Poland [47] |
191 | b Commercial food for toddlers, c commercial food | EDI about 3 times higher among infants than adults | China [45] | |
78 | a Infant food, b commercial food for toddlers | EDI 3.8 times higher among infants than adults | Belgium [46] | |
EXPOSURE | ||||
230 | a Infant food, b commercial food for toddlers | Medium exposure is not a health risk | Germany [49] | |
Furan | 76 | a Infant food, b commercial food for toddlers | Meat- and fish-based products potential risk for children | Spain [44] |
Type of Contamination (Number of Mycotoxins Tested) | Number of Samples | Type of Food Sample | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
Mycotoxins | 1207 | c Infant formula, milk | Only 1% of samples exceeded the norm | China [60] |
Mycotoxins (14) | 215 | a Infant food (cereal products) | Contamination of 31% of cereals, 19% of baby cereals; norms were exceeded | Brazil [51] |
Mycotoxins (1: aflatoxin M1) | 185 | a Infant food (dairy products), c infant formula | 85% of infant formula samples exceeded the MCL | Jordan [54] |
Mycotoxins (5) | 137 | a Infant food (cereal and nuts products) | Contamination of 42% of baby food samples | Nigeria [56] |
Mycotoxins (1: aflatoxin M1) | 101 | a Infant food (dairy products), c infant formula | 1 sample of infant formula contaminated | Serbia [59] |
Mycotoxins (1: aflatoxin M1) | 84 | c Infant formula | Contamination of 3% of samples, norms were not exceeded | Turkey [58] |
Mycotoxins (1: ochratoxin A) | 64 | a Infant food (cereal products) | Contamination of 41% of cereal samples | Iran [55] |
Mycotoxins (5) | 60 | a Infant food (cereal products) | Contamination of 20% of cereal samples, of which 10% exceeded maximum level | Spain [52] |
ESTIMATION OF INTAKE | ||||
Mycotoxin (1: Deoxynivalenol) | 3309 | a Infant food, c infant formula, milk | Average exposure twice as high as TDI | Norway [57] |
Mycotoxins (1: patulin) | 610 | b Commercial food for toddlers (apple-based products) | No exceedances of PMTDI standards | Qatar [50] |
Mycotoxins (5) | 302 | a Infant food and b commercial food for toddlers (cereal products) | No exceedances of TDI standards | Poland [53] |
Type of Contamination | Number of Samples | Type of Food Sample | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
Nitrites, nitrates | 1319 | b Commercial food for toddlers, c commercial food | ADI of nitrite was exceeded in 16% of infant and 58% of toddler food samples | France [67] |
Nitrites, nitrates, N-nitrosoamines | 315 | b Commercial food for toddlers (meat) | ADI of nitrite was exceeded in 40% and 29% of child food samples at different times | Estonia [68] |
Nitrites, nitrates | 157 | b Commercial food for toddlers (meat) | ADI of nitrite was exceeded in 3% of child food samples | Estonia [66] |
Nitrates, nitrites | 108 | a Infant food, c commercial food (vegetable, fruit, cereals and milk based) | Average nitrite content in the upper limit of the standard | Fiji [65] |
ESTIMATION OF INTAKE | ||||
Nitrates | 1150 | b Commercial food for toddlers (vegetable based), vegetables | No exceedance of the maximum permissible dose | Spain [62] |
Nitrites, nitrates | 104 | a Infant food, c commercial food | No exceedance of the maximum permissible dose | Italy [63] |
Nitrates | 80 | a Infant food (vegetable based) | Only 1 sample exceeded the ADI | Portugal [61] |
Nitrates | 39 | a Infant food (vegetable, meat- based) | No exceedance of the maximum permissible dose | Portugal [64] |
Type of Contamination (Number of Pesticides Tested) | Number of Samples | Type of Food Sample | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
Pesticides (86) | 522 | a Infant food (fruit based) | Detected in 60% of samples, 1.4% exceeded the MRL | Czech Republic [70] |
Pesticides (516) | 309 | b Commercial food for toddlers, c commercial food | Detected in 67% of samples, exceeded the TRV | France [69] |
Pesticides: (1: imidacloprid) | 250 | a Infant food, fruit, vegetables, cereal | Detected in 15% of samples, exceeded the MRL | India [72] |
Pesticides (4: glyphosate, glufosinate, perchlorate, chlorate) | 105 | a Infant food, c commercial food | Perchlorate detected in 10.5% of samples | Italy [75] |
Pesticides (18) | 100 | c Commercial food (homemade) | Detected in 100% of samples | Korea [71] |
Pesticides (69) | 54 | a Infant food (juices, purees) | Detected in 56% of samples | Serbia [72] |
Pesticides (12) | 33 | a Infant food (juices, multi-fruit jars) | Three pesticides detected in 60% of samples | Spain and United Kingdom [74] |
Type of Contamination | Number of Samples | Type of food Samples | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
PAH | 126 | b Commercial food (meat, fish) | No exceedances in meat and fish, exceedances in dairy products | Italy [77] |
40 | a Infant food, b commercial food (dairy products) | Exceedance in dairy samples 18.2%, meat and fish 5.6% | Italy [76] | |
ESTIMATION OF INTAKE | ||||
PAH | 322 | b Commercial food (meat) | No exceedances in average PAH intake | Estonia [78] |
42 | a Infant food | One sample exceeding MCL | Iran [79] | |
EXPOSURE | ||||
PAH | 152 | c Infant formula | No exceedances (MOE > 10,000) | Korea [81] |
40 | c Infant formula | No exceedances (MOE > 10,000) | Nigeria [80] |
Type of Contamination | Number of Samples | Type of Food Sample | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
Glycidyl esters, 3-MCPD | 275 | a Infant food (homemade), c commercial food for toddlers | Over 71% of diet samples contaminated with 3-MCPD and glycidyl esters | China [85] |
Glycidyl esters, 3-MCPD | 222 | a Infant food | Lower concentrations of 3-MCPD (7-fold) and glycidyl esters (3-fold) during 3 years | USA [82] |
Glycidyl esters, 3-MCPD | 130 | a Infant food, c commercial food | Products containing palm oil had a higher concentration of 3-MCPD and glycidyl esters | Italy [84] |
Glycidyl esters, 3-MCPD | 96 | a Infant food | Lowest concentrations in products containing palm oil | USA [87] |
Glycidyl esters, 2-MCPD, 3-MCPD | 77 | a Infant food | 2-MCPD detected in all samples | Germany [83] |
EXPOSURE | ||||
3-MCPD | 60 | c Commercial food for toddlers | Exceeded TDIs in potato chips, crackers, peanuts, muesli, and biscuits | Poland [86] |
Type of Contamination | Number of Samples | Type of Food Sample | Results | Country [Reference] |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAMINANT CONTENT | ||||
MOH | 51 | c Infant formula | MOH detected in 33% | China [88] |
50 | c Infant formula | MOH detected in 66% | China [89] | |
16 | a Infant food | MOH detected in all samples containing meat and fish | Italy [8] | |
EXPOSURE | ||||
MOH | 230 | a Infant food, b commercial food for toddlers, c infant formula | Highest risk of MOH exposure among infants | China [90] |
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Mielech, A.; Puścion-Jakubik, A.; Socha, K. Assessment of the Risk of Contamination of Food for Infants and Toddlers. Nutrients 2021, 13, 2358. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13072358
Mielech A, Puścion-Jakubik A, Socha K. Assessment of the Risk of Contamination of Food for Infants and Toddlers. Nutrients. 2021; 13(7):2358. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13072358
Chicago/Turabian StyleMielech, Anita, Anna Puścion-Jakubik, and Katarzyna Socha. 2021. "Assessment of the Risk of Contamination of Food for Infants and Toddlers" Nutrients 13, no. 7: 2358. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13072358