Dietary Intakes and Eating Behavior between Metabolically Healthy and Unhealthy Obesity Phenotypes in Asian Children and Adolescents
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Participants
2.2. Anthropometric and Biochemical Measurements
2.3. Assessment of Dietary Intake
2.4. Evaluation of Eating Behavior
2.5. Classification of MHO and MUO Children/Adolescents
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Clinical Characteristics of Participants
3.2. Food Groups, Nutrient Intakes and Eating Behavior between Children/adolescents with MHO and Children/Adolescents with MUO
3.3. Food Groups, Nutrient Intakes and Eating Behavior between Children/Adolescents with MHO and Children/Adolescents with MUO Stratified by Sex or Race
3.4. Association between Food Groups/Nutrients/Eating Behavior and Risk Factors of Metabolic Syndrome
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | All (n = 52) | MHO (n = 42) | MUO (n = 10) | p | MHO (n = 12) | MUO (n = 40) | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 14.1 (12.3–16.1) | 14.1 (11.8–16.1) | 14.1 (13.8–16.3) | 0.531 | 12.6 (8.59–17.0) | 14.6 (13.1–16.1) | 0.182 |
Sex (%Male/%Female) | 59.6/40.4 | 60/40 | 60/40 | 1.000 | 83/17 | 52.5/47.5 | 0.093 |
Race (%Chinese/%Malay/%Indian) | 40.4/53.8/5.8 | 38/55/7 | 50/50/0 | 0.597 | 25/67/8 | 45/50/5 | 0.457 |
Monthly household income < SGD 2000 (%) | 15.6 | 15 | 17 | 1.000 | 10 | 18 | 1.000 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 35.9 (32.1–41.3) | 35.9 (31.8–40.9) | 36.4 (32.3–44.0) | 0.763 | 33.6 (30.1–39.4) | 36.5 (32.4–42.2) | 0.152 |
BMI-SDS | 2.43 (2.16–2.64) | 2.44 (2.17–2.63) | 2.28 (2.05–2.79) | 0.781 | 2.36 (1.99–2.55) | 2.44 (2.19–2.68) | 0.422 |
Waist to hip ratio | 0.98 (0.93–1.02) | 0.98 (0.95–1.02) | 0.95 (0.91–1.00) | 0.189 | 1.01 (0.94–1.03) | 0.98 (0.93–1.00) | 0.142 |
Body fat percentage (%) | 48.2 (39.4–55.4) | 47.9 (39.8–55.7) | 50.3 (35.5–54.8) | 0.952 | 51.5 (37.1–62.6) | 48.0 (40.1–54.3) | 0.558 |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 120 (111–130) | 118 (110–126) | 130 (124–134) | 0.003 * | 113 (108–118) | 124 (115–132) | 0.004 * |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 66 (59–72) | 64 (57–72) | 70 (62–73) | 0.197 | 58 (55–72) | 67 (60–73) | 0.080 |
Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 4.49 (3.92–5.04) | 4.52 (4.03–5.03) | 4.18 (3.54–5.17) | 0.493 | 4.61 (3.77–5.05) | 4.37 (3.98–5.04) | 0.991 |
Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 1.12 (0.94–1.35) | 1.01 (0.86–1.24) | 1.55 (1.10–2.17) | 0.014 * | 0.88 (0.69–1.24) | 1.13 (0.95–1.42) | 0.059 |
HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 1.11 (0.98–1.24) | 1.17 (0.99–1.25) | 1.01 (0.89–1.17) | 0.048 * | 1.24 (1.19–1.29) | 1.06 (0.95–1.19) | 0.002 * |
LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 2.84 (2.33–3.17) | 2.95 (2.40–3.38) | 2.52 (2.06–2.95) | 0.099 | 2.96 (2.32–3.17) | 2.80 (2.33–3.32) | 0.871 |
Fasting glucose (mmol/L) | 4.75 (4.60–5.10) | 4.70 (4.60–5.00) | 5.00 (4.58–5.20) | 0.434 | 4.65 (4.50–4.78) | 4.85 (4.60–5.20) | 0.027 * |
Glucose at 2 h of OGTT (mmol/L) | 5.50 (5.00–6.20) | 5.30 (4.88–6.10) | 5.85 (5.23–8.55) | 0.140 | 5.30 (5.10–5.68) | 5.55 (4.85–6.38) | 0.535 |
Fasting insulin (mU/L) | 22.6 (14.3–30.7) | 21.4 (14.1–30.4) | 25.0 (19.1–38.5) | 0.403 | 17.4 (11.4–25.1) | 25.0 (17.2–32.5) | 0.039 * |
HOMA-IR | 4.85 (3.14–6.43) | 4.48 (3.09–6.29) | 5.41 (3.76–8.84) | 0.410 | 3.67 (2.30–5.22) | 5.15 (3.35–7.70) | 0.019 * |
MH Definition | |||
---|---|---|---|
MHO (n = 12) | MUO (n = 40) | p | |
Food groups (continuous variables) | |||
Deep fried food (g) | 76.6 (19.0–136) | 55.1 (39.3–129) | 0.558 |
Fast food and processed convenience food (g) | 121 (16.1–152) | 54.1 (0.00–135) | 0.502 |
Fish (g) | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.00 (0.00–66.7) | 0.788 |
Fruits (g) | 17.7 (0.00–44.4) | 0.00 (0.00–39.8) | 0.721 |
Savory snacks (g) | 1.22 (0.00–21.3) | 5.00 (0.00–34.5) | 0.965 |
Sugar-sweetened beverage, SSB (ml) | 342 (163–421) | 278 (161–464) | 0.417 |
Sweet snacks (g) | 52.0 (6.25–118) | 23.5 (0.00–58.2) | 0.171 |
Vegetables (g) | 73.5 (43.7–113) | 82.3 (37.5–140) | 0.430 |
Whole grains (g) | 18.5 (0.00–69.8) | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.027 * |
Nutrients (continuous variables) | |||
Total energy (kcal) | 1856 (1670–2470) | 1855 (1730–2260) | 0.239 |
Carbohydrates (%kcal) | 49.1 (46.8–52.1) | 45.3 (40.2–51.9) | 0.539 |
Protein (%kcal) | 16.4 (14.7–17.6) | 17.7 (15.4–21.4) | 0.536 |
Total fat (%kcal) | 34.4 (32.8–37.2) | 36.0 (31.8–39.5) | 0.918 |
Saturated fat (%kcal) | 12.6 (10.1–14.2) | 12.3 (11.1–14.3) | 0.319 |
Monounsaturated fat (%kcal) | 11.7 (10.4–12.5) | 13.5 (11.4–14.9) | 0.851 |
Polyunsaturated fat (%kcal) | 6.92 (5.85–9.02) | 6.26 (5.17–7.45) | 0.027 * |
Beta-carotene (mcg per 1000 kcal) | 5.16 (0.00–50.1) | 0.19 (0.00–3.83) | 0.655 |
Calcium (mg per 1000 kcal) | 304 (183–368) | 252 (209–298) | 0.166 |
Cholesterol (mg per 1000 kcal) | 172 (101–229) | 198 (149–228) | 0.160 |
Dietary fiber (g per 1000 kcal) | 6.73 (5.85–7.59) | 6.60 (5.98–7.82) | 0.955 |
Iron (mg per 1000 kcal) | 6.54 (5.02–7.21) | 6.03 (5.24–7.09) | 0.719 |
Sodium (mg per 1000 kcal) | 1550 (1410–1840) | 1780 (1360–2050) | 0.839 |
Vitamin A (mcg per 1000 kcal) | 248 (114–338) | 258 (187–363) | 0.797 |
% of participants meeting AMDR/RDA of nutrients | |||
Carbohydrates † (AMDR) | 91.7 | 50 | 0.186 |
Total fat † (AMDR) | 58.3 | 42.5 | 0.924 |
Saturated fat † (AMDR) | 16.7 | 17.5 | 0.689 |
Protein † (AMDR) | 100 | 100 | 1.000 |
Calcium ‡ (RDA) | 8.3 | 5 | 0.498 |
Dietary fiber † (RDA) | 8.3 | 5 | 0.891 |
Iron ‡ (RDA) | 83.3 | 50 | 0.290 |
Vitamin A ‡ (RDA) | 50 | 20 | 0.072 |
Eating behavior (continuous variables) | |||
Cognitive dietary restraint | 16.0 (14.0–19.0) | 15.0 (13.0–17.0) | 0.009 * |
Emotional eating | 6.00 (3.25–6.00) | 6.00 (4.00–8.00) | 1.000 |
Uncontrolled eating | 22.0 (18.0–24.5) | 21.0 (19.0–24.0) | 0.766 |
MH Definition | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | |||||
MHO (n = 10) | MUO (n = 21) | p | MHO (n = 2) | MUO (n = 19) | p | |
Food groups | ||||||
Deep fried food (g) | 53.4 (7.18–110) | 80.9 (43.3–138) | 0.997 | 204 | 43.8 (23.3–106) | 0.401 |
Fast food and processed convenience food (g) | 121 (19.5–150) | 75.0 (0.00–151) | 0.855 | 107 | 50.0 (0.00–133) | 0.182 |
Fish (g) | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 14.0 (0.00–95.5) | 0.577 | 0.00 | 0.00 (0.00–47.7) | 0.774 |
Fruits (g) | 23.3 (0.00–48.9) | 0.00 (0.00–17.9) | 0.010 * | 13.1 | 4.00 (0.00–60.0) | 0.970 |
Savory snacks (g) | 1.22 (0.00–19.8) | 0.00 (0.00–33.1) | 0.940 | 16.7 | 12.8 (0.00–44.5) | 0.742 |
Sugar-sweetened beverage, SSB (ml) | 355 (209–472) | 257 (129–472) | 0.163 | 182 | 313 (207–444) | 0.212 |
Sweet snacks (g) | 52.0 (18.8–121) | 16.7 (0.00–50.8) | 0.097 | 61.8 | 26.7 (7.67–66.7) | 0.202 |
Vegetables (g) | 66.1 (39.8–118) | 71.3 (35.9–112) | 0.725 | 86.3 | 85.3 (36.7–159) | 0.555 |
Whole grains (g) | 17.2 (0.00–38.6) | 0.00 (0.00–42.3) | 0.933 | 133 | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | <0.001 * |
Nutrients | ||||||
Total energy (kcal) | 1860 (1670–2460) | 2110 (1790–2420) | 0.253 | 2080 | 1780 (1680–1900) | 0.432 |
Carbohydrates (% kcal) | 49.1 (47.1–52.7) | 49.0 (38.6–52.8) | 0.900 | 43.1 | 44.0 (41.1–50.6) | 0.052 |
Protein (% kcal) | 16.0 (14.5–17.3) | 17.6 (15.9–21.5) | 0.987 | 19.4 | 19.7 (14.0–21.4) | 0.396 |
Total fat (% kcal) | 34.4 (32.9–36.4) | 34.7 (30.8–39.7) | 0.409 | 37.5 | 36.2 (32.7–39.6) | 0.971 |
Saturated fat (% kcal) | 12.3 (10.0–13.7) | 11.6 (9.93–13.8) | 0.371 | 14.3 | 12.7 (12.1–14.9) | 0.386 |
Monounsaturated fat (% kcal) | 11.7 (10.0–12.2) | 13.5 (11.4–15.1) | 0.786 | 13.5 | 13.4 (9.77–14.5) | 0.244 |
Polyunsaturated fat (% kcal) | 7.47 (5.46–9.25) | 6.09 (5.11–7.80) | 0.268 | 6.82 | 6.56 (5.67–7.24) | 0.746 |
Beta-carotene (mcg per 1000 kcal) | 3.39 (0.00–59.3) | 0.00 (0.00–1.32) | 0.548 | 15.4 | 0.81 (0.00–27.6) | 0.801 |
Calcium (mg per 1000 kcal) | 298 (158–318) | 225 (195–284) | 0.367 | 383 | 277 (221–359) | 0.282 |
Cholesterol (mg per 1000 kcal) | 161 (83.7–185) | 208 (160–254) | 0.097 | 305 | 190 (136–219) | 0.096 |
Dietary fiber (g per 1000 kcal) | 6.73 (5.72–7.80) | 6.67 (5.85–8.14) | 0.397 | 6.93 | 6.44 (5.97–7.53) | 0.982 |
Iron (mg per 1000 kcal) | 6.54 (4.94–7.14) | 6.01 (5.24–7.29) | 0.367 | 7.12 | 6.55 (5.23–6.92) | 0.540 |
Sodium (mg per 1000 kcal) | 1520 (1290–1840) | 1760 (1480–2050) | 0.795 | 1680 | 1890 (1340–2060) | 0.957 |
Vitamin A (mcg per 1000 kcal) | 188 (108–300) | 219 (123–353) | 0.275 | 395 | 314 (227–402) | 0.348 |
Eating behavior | ||||||
Cognitive dietary restraint | 15.5 (13.8–19.0) | 14.0 (13.0–16.0) | 0.031 * | 17.5 | 17.0 (14.0–18.0) | 0.999 |
Emotional eating | 6.00 (5.50–6.50) | 5.00 (3.50–6.00) | 0.490 | 3.00 | 7.00 (5.00–8.00) | 0.043 * |
Uncontrolled eating | 23.0 (18.0–25.0) | 21.0 (19.0–24.0) | 0.772 | 17.0 | 21.0 (18.0–23.0) | 0.027 * |
MH Definition | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chinese | Malay | |||||
MHO (n = 3) | MUO (n = 18) | p | MHO (n = 8) | MUO (n = 20) | p | |
Food groups | ||||||
Deep fried food (g) | 47.3 | 78.8 (42.3–161) | 0.972 | 78.3 (19.2–151) | 48.8 (23.5–119) | 0.274 |
Fast food and processed convenience food (g) | 0.00 | 54.1 (0.00–123) | 0.389 | 129 (35.7–198) | 75.3 (0.00–170) | 0.296 |
Fish (g) | 0.00 | 0.00 (0.00–105) | 1.000 | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 5.00 (0.00–66.7) | 0.771 |
Fruits (g) | 26.1 | 7.07 (0.00–62.1) | 0.963 | 4.58 (0.00–52.2) | 0.00 (0.00–29.5) | 1.000 |
Savory snacks (g) | 0.00 | 6.42 (0.00–30.2) | 0.551 | 15.8 (0.61–30.5) | 0.00 (0.00–44.9) | 0.683 |
Sugar-sweetened beverage, SSB (ml) | 333 | 237 (108–336) | 0.020 * | 291 (57.5–378) | 370 (219–588) | 0.194 |
Sweet snacks (g) | 124 | 23.5 (5.75–63.7) | 0.750 | 34.3 (6.25–90.7) | 22.5 (0.00–48.9) | 0.422 |
Vegetables (g) | 70.5 | 125 (53.7–169) | 0.387 | 66.1 (43.7–101) | 50.1 (29.9–92.0) | 0.466 |
Whole grains (g) | 19.0 | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.680 | 17.2 (0.00–69.8) | 0.00 (0.00–15.9) | 0.209 |
Nutrients | ||||||
Total energy (kcal) | 1670 | 1860 (1770–2300) | 0.830 | 1860 (1680–2400) | 1820 (1680–2220) | 0.358 |
Carbohydrates (% kcal) | 52.6 | 40.5 (36.3–43.9) | 0.051 | 47.6 (45.7–49.5) | 50.6 (46.0–53.2) | 0.076 |
Protein (% kcal) | 14.6 | 21.3 (17.1–23.2) | 0.224 | 16.9 (15.8–18.7) | 15.8 (14.0–19.6) | 0.211 |
Total fat (% kcal) | 32.8 | 39.1 (35.7–40.7) | 0.058 | 35.7 (34.3–37.9) | 32.6 (30.6–36.2) | 0.076 |
Saturated fat (% kcal) | 13.0 | 12.4 (11.9–14.9) | 0.922 | 10.9 (9.84–14.9) | 11.8 (10.1–13.2) | 0.226 |
Monounsaturated fat (% kcal) | 9.88 | 14.1 (13.2–15.1) | 0.002 * | 12.0 (11.6–14.3) | 12.1 (9.90–14.2) | 0.991 |
Polyunsaturated fat (% kcal) | 6.46 | 6.83 (6.00–7.96) | 0.215 | 8.38 (6.03–9.35) | 5.84 (5.17–6.92) | 0.039 * |
Beta-carotene (mcg per 1000 kcal) | 24.9 | 0.09 (0.00–1.50) | 0.066 | 3.39 (0.00–45.3) | 0.27 (0.00–4.86) | 0.872 |
Calcium (mg per 1000 kcal) | 316 | 233 (199–288) | 0.585 | 298 (151–368) | 259 (205–299) | 0.332 |
Cholesterol (mg per 1000 kcal) | 85.7 | 213 (179–248) | 0.236 | 176 (158–229) | 198 (116–222) | 0.484 |
Dietary fiber (g per 1000 kcal) | 7.39 | 6.22 (5.83–8.10) | 0.712 | 6.67 (5.56–7.49) | 7.08 (6.03–7.71) | 0.148 |
Iron (mg per 1000 kcal) | 6.50 | 5.83 (5.24–6.70) | 0.735 | 6.84 (5.26–7.21) | 6.72 (5.06–7.34) | 0.365 |
Sodium (mg per 1000 kcal) | 964 | 1860 (1370–2560) | 0.352 | 1630 (1440–1840) | 1700 (1390–2050) | 0.834 |
Vitamin A (mcg per 1000 kcal) | 286 | 288 (195–403) | 0.997 | 248 (121–338) | 250 (155–325) | 0.468 |
Eating behavior | ||||||
Cognitive dietary restraint | 15.0 | 14.0 (13.0–17.0) | 0.612 | 15.5 (14.0–19.0) | 16.0 (13.0–18.0) | 0.016 * |
Emotional eating | 3.00 | 5.50 (3.75–8.00) | 0.085 | 6.00 (6.00–7.50) | 6.00 (4.00–7.75) | 0.398 |
Uncontrolled eating | 19.0 | 21.0 (18.0–25.0) | 0.110 | 23.0 (18.8–25.0) | 21.0 (19.0–23.0) | 0.549 |
BMI-SDS | Triglycerides | HDL Cholesterol | Fasting Glucose | Glucose at 2 h OGTT | Systolic Blood Pressure | Diastolic Blood Pressure | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | |
Food groups | ||||||||||||||
Deep fried food (g) | 6.01 | −83.5–95.5 | −0.85 | −47.1–45.4 | 82.0 | −55.6–220 | −7.16 | −60.6–46.3 | −0.16 | −17.0–16.7 | 2.84 * | 0.95–6.62 * | 0.84 | −2.93–4.61 |
Fast food and processed convenience food (g) | −17.0 | −140–106 | −31.8 | −92.9–29.3 | −35.5 | −248–177 | 7.25 | −67.8–82.3 | 1.86 | −21.2–25.0 | 1.02 | −2.89–4.92 | 4.83* | 0.61–9.04 * |
Fish (g) | 0.00 | −52.3–52.3 | 0.00 | −28.9–28.9 | −23.5 | −114–67.1 | 0.00 | −32.1–32.1 | 7.39 | −2.32–17.1 | 0.00 | −1.78–1.78 | 0.00 | −2.05–2.05 |
Fruits (g) | 7.72 | −24.1–39.6 | 0.22 | −15.9–16.3 | 6.00 | −47.2–59.2 | −6.83 | −24.7–11.0 | −0.80 | −6.97–5.37 | −0.05 | −1.13–1.02 | 0.19 | −1.05–1.42 |
Savory snacks (g) | 16.6 | −12.8–46.0 | −0.50 | −16.4–15.4 | −14.7 | −69.0–39.6 | −9.14 | −28.0–9.72 | −1.81 | −7.61–3.99 | −0.04 | −1.05–0.97 | 0.95 | −0.25–2.15 |
Sugar-sweetened beverage, SSB (ml) | −79.8 | −322–163 | −28.5 | −164–107 | 133 | −370–635 | 31.5 | −112–175 | −25.9 | −72.8–21.1 | −1.33 | −9.85–7.19 | −3.73 | −12.9–5.44 |
Sweet snacks (g) | 7.37 | −43.7–58.3 | 0.27 | −26.6–27.1 | 24.9 | −59.9–110 | 0.35 | −30.9–31.6 | 2.02 | −7.74–11.8 | −0.02 | −1.61–1.57 | −0.02 | −1.86–1.82 |
Vegetables (g) | 38.3 | −38.4–115 | −9.54 | −48.7–29.6 | −89.9 | −212–32.0 | 5.74 | −40.1–51.6 | 15.6 | −2.98–28.1 | −1.31 | −3.65–1.03 | −1.02 | −4.00–1.95 |
Whole grains (g) | 0.00 | −14.4–14.4 | 0.00 | −7.64–7.64 | 0.00 | −45.8–45.8 | 0.00 | −6.94–6.94 | 0.00 | −2.64–2.64 | 0.00 | −0.83–0.83 | 0.00 | −1.02–1.02 |
Macronutrients | ||||||||||||||
Carbohydrates (% kcal) | −2.09 | −9.80–5.63 | 1.58 | −2.22–5.39 | 9.57 | −3.09–16.06 | 2.42 | −2.18–7.01 | 0.91 | −0.42–2.23 | 0.15 | −0.12–0.42 | 0.09 | −0.19–0.37 |
Protein (% kcal) | 2.19 | −2.44–6.82 | −0.73 | −3.08–1.62 | −7.25 | −14.8–0.31 | −1.31 | −4.12–1.51 | 0.38 | −0.50–1.26 | −0.08 | −0.23–0.07 | −0.03 | −0.20–0.15 |
Total fat (% kcal) | 2.48 | −3.65–8.62 | −1.39 | −4.67–1.88 | −1.49 | −11.6–8.64 | 0.06 | −3.60–3.72 | −0.41 | −1.52–0.69 | 0.01 | −0.17–0.20 | 0.01 | −0.21–0.23 |
Saturated fat (% kcal) | 0.39 | −2.66–3.44 | −0.48 | −2.17–1.22 | −1.51 | −6.10–3.07 | 0.15 | −1.76–2.06 | −0.20 | −0.73–0.33 | −0.01 | −0.11–0.08 | −0.02 | −0.13–0.09 |
Monounsaturated fat (% kcal) | 1.29 | −1.77–4.35 | 1.26 | −0.35–2.86 | −0.90 | −6.01–4.22 | 1.11 | −0.61–2.83 | −0.28 | −0.91–0.36 | −0.05 | −0.16–0.06 | −0.02 | −0.14–0.10 |
Polyunsaturated fat (% kcal) | −0.078 | −1.89–1.73 | −0.57 | −1.53–0.39 | 2.81 | −0.74–6.35 | −0.19 | −1.29–0.91 | −0.05 | −0.44–0.33 | −0.00 | −0.06–0.06 | 0.05 | −0.02–0.12 |
Micronutrients | ||||||||||||||
Beta-carotene (mcg per 1000 kcal) | −0.00 | −16.2–16.2 | −0.41 | −8.86–8.03 | 0.00 | −27.7–27.7 | −1.72 | −11.4–7.99 | −0.32 | −3.50–2.86 | −0.01 | −0.65–0.64 | 0.00 | −0.83–0.83 |
Calcium (mg per 1000 kcal) | −10.6 | −116–94.7 | −9.17 | −64.0–45.6 | 127 | −36.1–290 | −6.82 | −71.2–57.5 | −10.7 | −31.1–9.69 | −2.40 | −5.98–1.18 | −1.08 | −5.03–2.87 |
Cholesterol (mg per 1000 kcal) | −10.0 | −91.2–71.1 | −10.4 | −52.9–32.2 | −62.7 | −213–87.2 | −17.4 | −68.1–33.3 | −6.91 | −23.1–9.32 | 0.94 | −2.07–3.95 | −0.30 | −3.37–2.78 |
Dietary fiber (g per 1000 kcal) | −0.33 | −2.36–1.69 | 0.06 | −0.87–0.98 | −0.87 | −4.32–2.59 | −0.12 | −1.30–1.07 | −0.09 | −0.45–0.26 | −0.01 | −0.08–0.06 | 0.02 | −0.07–0.10 |
Iron (mg per 1000 kcal) | −0.89 | −2.09–0.91 | 0.36 | −0.37–1.09 | −2.34 * | −4.65–−0.04 * | −0.17 | −1.09–0.76 | −0.37 * | −0.67–−0.07 * | −0.04 | −0.08–0.01 | −0.02 | −0.07–0.04 |
Sodium (mg per 1000 kcal) | 207 | −507–921 | −34.7 | −372–303 | 576 | −519–1672 | 165 | −272–601 | −59.7 | −196–77 | −7.49 | −31.4–16.4 | −2.69 | −27.5–22.1 |
Vitamin A (mcg per 1000 kcal) | −60.1 | −210–90.3 | −43.8 | −120–32.7 | −62.8 | −328–202 | −58.1 | −142–25.7 | −13.2 | −40.0–13.6 | −0.80 | −6.10–4.51 | −1.48 | −7.40–4.44 |
Eating behavior | ||||||||||||||
Cognitive dietary restraint | −0.63 | −3.87–2.61 | 0.15 | −1.65–1.95 | 1.29 | −3.91–6.49 | −0.06 | −2.06–1.95 | 0.09 | −0.53–0.71 | −0.06 | −0.17–0.04 | 0.02 | −0.11–0.15 |
Emotional eating | −0.00 | −2.54–2.54 | 0.00 | −1.43–1.43 | −0.00 | −4.44–4.44 | 0.00 | −1.51–1.51 | 0.00 | −0.48–0.48 | −0.00 | −0.09–0.09 | 0.05 | −0.05–0.15 |
Uncontrolled eating | 1.62 | −2.55–5.78 | −0.98 | −3.11–1.15 | 4.15 | −3.09–11.4 | −0.74 | −3.20–1.71 | −0.32 | −1.07–0.44 | −0.07 | −0.19–0.06 | 0.05 | −0.11–0.21 |
Elevated Blood Pressure | Hypertriglyceridemia | Dyslipidemia (HDL) | Abnormal Glucose Tolerance | MUO (MS Definition) | MUO (MH Definition) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | |
Food groups | ||||||||||||
Deep fried food (g) | 1.005 | 0.997–1.013 | 1.003 | 0.993–1.014 | 0.997 | 0.989–1.005 | 0.994 | 0.980–1.007 | 1.000 | 0.991–1.009 | 0.996 | 0.986–1.006 |
Fast food and processed convenience food (g) | 1.002 | 0.995–1.008 | 0.992 | 0.980–1.005 | 0.999 | 0.993–1.006 | 0.994 | 0.981–1.007 | 0.998 | 0.989–1.006 | 0.997 | 0.989–1.005 |
Fish (g) | 1.007 | 0.994–1.020 | 1.010 | 0.992–1.029 | 0.998 | 0.984–1.013 | 1.013 | 0.996–1.031 | 1.009 | 0.994–1.023 | 1.028 | 0.999–1.059 |
Fruits (g) | 1.007 | 0.992–1.021 | 1.001 | 0.978–1.024 | 0.992 | 0.977–1.007 | 0.993 | 0.973–1.013 | 1.001 | 0.985–1.018 | 1.004 | 0.982–1.026 |
Savory snacks (g) | 1.010 | 0.992–1.028 | 0.991 | 0.959–1.024 | 1.003 | 0.984–1.022 | 1.002 | 0.976–1.029 | 1.014 | 0.993–1.034 | 1.019 | 0.980–1.059 |
Sugar-sweetened beverage, SSB (ml) | 1.002 | 1.000–1.005 | 1.001 | 0.998–1.003 | 1.000 | 0.997–1.002 | 0.994 | 0.987–1.001 | 1.002 | 0.999–1.004 | 1.001 | 0.998–1.004 |
Sweet snacks (g) | 0.997 | 0.986–1.009 | 0.994 | 0.975–1.014 | 0.996 | 0.983–1.009 | 0.986 | 0.960–1.014 | 0.995 | 0.978–1.011 | 0.988 | 0.974–1.002 |
Vegetables (g) | 0.997 | 0.990–1.004 | 0.988 | 0.970–1.007 | 1.001 | 0.994–1.008 | 1.004 | 0.997–1.012 | 1.001 | 0.993–1.008 | 0.998 | 0.990–1.007 |
Whole grains (g) | 0.991 | 0.975–1.007 | 1.006 | 0.990–1.023 | 1.004 | 0.990–1.018 | 0.996 | 0.976–1.015 | 1.006 | 0.992–1.021 | 0.993 | 0.978–1.008 |
Macronutrients | ||||||||||||
Carbohydrates (% kcal) | 1.100 | 0.982–1.232 | 1.022 | 0.880–1.187 | 0.913 | 0.811–1.028 | 0.994 | (0.864–1.142) | 1.020 | 0.905–1.150 | 0.988 | 0.861–1.134 |
Protein (% kcal) | 0.791 * | 0.642–0.974 * | 0.980 | 0.741–1.297 | 1.115 | 0.929–1.340 | 1.213 | (0.955–1.541) | 0.942 | 0.764–1.160 | 1.074 | 0.830–1.391 |
Total fat (% kcal) | 0.976 | 0.848–1.122 | 0.972 | 0.799–1.182 | 1.083 | 0.935–1.253 | 0.871 | (0.706–1.074) | 1.002 | 0.852–1.179 | 0.983 | 0.814–1.188 |
Saturated fat (% kcal) | 1.057 | 0.795–1.405 | 0.918 | 0.618–1.365 | 0.986 | 0.725–1.341 | 0.903 | (0.581–1.403) | 1.125 | 0.807–1.570 | 0.799 | 0.555–1.153 |
Monounsaturated fat (% kcal) | 0.981 | 0.772–1.247 | 1.353 | 0.909–2.012 | 1.004 | 0.780–1.291 | 1.009 | (0.700–1.455) | 1.146 | 0.843–1.558 | 1.133 | 0.841–1.526 |
Polyunsaturated fat (% kcal) | 0.870 | 0.598–1.265 | 0.957 | 0.584–1.568 | 0.914 | 0.613–1.363 | 0.623 | (0.318–1.222) | 0.803 | 0.502–1.284 | 0.529 * | 0.284–0.986 * |
Micronutrients | ||||||||||||
Beta-carotene (mcg per 1000 kcal) | 0.977 | 0.939–1.017 | 0.360 | 0.070–1.859 | 1.000 | 0.995–1.005 | 0.984 | (0.924–1.048) | 0.982 | 0.925–1.042 | 0.995 | 0.989–1.001 |
Calcium (mg per 1000 kcal) | 0.991 * | 0.982–1.000 * | 0.997 | 0.987–1.007 | 1.002 | 0.995–1.009 | 0.999 | (0.989–1.009) | 0.992 | 0.981–1.003 | 0.997 | 0.989–1.005 |
Cholesterol (mg per 1000 kcal) | 1.001 | 0.992–1.010 | 1.009 | 0.995–1.022 | 1.007 | 0.997–1.017 | 1.006 | (0.994–1.018) | 1.005 | 0.994–1.015 | 1.003 | 0.992–1.014 |
Dietary fiber (g per 1000 kcal) | 0.714 | 0.473–1.079 | 0.967 | 0.584–1.601 | 1.188 | 0.863–1.635 | 0.747 | (0.416–1.340) | 0.655 | 0.365–1.175 | 1.015 | 0.702–1.468 |
Iron (mg per 1000 kcal) | 0.527 * | 0.309–0.899 * | 1.033 | 0.583–1.832 | 2.363 * | 1.258–4.437 * | 0.349 * | (0.134–0.908) * | 0.716 | 0.416–1.231 | 1.154 | 0.643–2.071 |
Sodium (mg per 1000 kcal) | 1.000 | 0.999–1.001 | 1.000 | 0.999–1.002 | 0.999 | 0.998–1.000 | 1.000 | (0.999–1.002) | 0.999 | 0.998–1.001 | 1.001 | 0.999–1.003 |
Vitamin A (mcg per 1000 kcal) | 0.998 | 0.993–1.002 | 0.996 | 0.989–1.003 | 1.001 | 0.997–1.005 | 1.002 | (0.996–1.008) | 0.998 | 0.992–1.003 | 1.000 | 0.995–1.004 |
Eating behavior | ||||||||||||
Cognitive dietary restraint | 0.711 * | 0.523–0.966 * | 0.987 | 0.690–1.413 | 0.747 | 0.527–1.059 | 1.259 | 0.853–1.859 | 0.797 | 0.557–1.139 | 0.681 * | 0.472–0.984 * |
Emotional eating | 0.866 | 0.641–1.172 | 1.017 | 0.695–1.488 | 0.958 | 0.698–1.314 | 0.968 | 0.650–1.442 | 0.877 | 0.617–1.246 | 1.084 | 0.756–1.553 |
Uncontrolled eating | 0.972 | 0.805–1.174 | 0.987 | 0.763–1.275 | 1.027 | 0.840–1.256 | 0.934 | 0.720–1.213 | 0.925 | 0.745–1.148 | 1.109 | 0.873–1.410 |
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Ooi, D.S.Q.; Toh, J.Y.; Ng, L.Y.B.; Peng, Z.; Yang, S.; Rashid, N.S.B.S.A.; Sng, A.A.; Chan, Y.H.; Chong, M.F.-F.; Lee, Y.S. Dietary Intakes and Eating Behavior between Metabolically Healthy and Unhealthy Obesity Phenotypes in Asian Children and Adolescents. Nutrients 2022, 14, 4796. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14224796
Ooi DSQ, Toh JY, Ng LYB, Peng Z, Yang S, Rashid NSBSA, Sng AA, Chan YH, Chong MF-F, Lee YS. Dietary Intakes and Eating Behavior between Metabolically Healthy and Unhealthy Obesity Phenotypes in Asian Children and Adolescents. Nutrients. 2022; 14(22):4796. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14224796
Chicago/Turabian StyleOoi, Delicia Shu Qin, Jia Ying Toh, Lucas Yan Bin Ng, Zikang Peng, Supeng Yang, Nurul Syafiqah Binte Said Abdul Rashid, Andrew Anjian Sng, Yiong Huak Chan, Mary Foong-Fong Chong, and Yung Seng Lee. 2022. "Dietary Intakes and Eating Behavior between Metabolically Healthy and Unhealthy Obesity Phenotypes in Asian Children and Adolescents" Nutrients 14, no. 22: 4796. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14224796