Hispanic Thrifty Food Plan (H-TFP): Healthy, Affordable, and Culturally Relevant
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Analyses of Dietary Intakes
2.1.1. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2015–2016
2.1.2. Healthy Eating Index HEI-2015
2.1.3. Plan of Analysis for Dietary Intakes Data
2.2. Input Data for Quadratic Programming (QP) Optimization Model
2.2.1. Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies (FNDDS 2015–16)
2.2.2. National Food Prices from the USDA
2.2.3. Population-Specific Weighted Modeling Variables
2.2.4. Cost and Nutrient Density of Modeling Categories
2.2.5. Healthy US-Style Food Pattern
2.3. Quadratic Programming (QP) Optimization Models
- Model 1, H TFP: This model determined the composition of a “cost neutral” H-TFP market basket.
- Model 2, H-TFP pork: In this model, pork replaced beef and poultry and was the only source of meat. The goal was to determine whether a TFP with pork as the only source of meat would conform to Dietary Guidelines and satisfy all nutrient needs with no increase in cost. The permitted amounts of the modeling categories of beef, poultry, and cured meat were each set to zero. The constraints on having minimal and maximal amounts of meat and poultry (as per USDA Healthy US-Style Food Plan) were removed. The amounts of seafood, eggs, and nuts and seeds were determined by the QP algorithm. The QR algorithm then searched for a healthy food plan that would satisfy all nutrient requirements. In this model, cost was allowed to increase by 0.07 to achieve a feasible mathematical solution for females aged 51–70 y.
- Model 3, Vegetarian: In this model, the permitted amounts of the modeling categories of beef, poultry, cured meat, seafood, and mixed dishes with meat, poultry, or seafood were all set to zero. The requirement to include a minimum amount of seafood (per US-Style Healthy Food Plan) was removed. The requirements to include minimum amounts of “meat + poultry + egg” and total protein foods were set to 0. The range for eggs was set at between 6 and 25 g/day. The QP algorithm then searched for cost-neutral vegetarian market baskets that would satisfy all energy and nutrient requirements.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics
3.2. Diet Quality Measured by HEI-2015 Scores
3.3. Observed Consumption Patterns (g/week) and Estimated Diet Costs ($/week) for Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Populations in NHANES 2013–16: Data for a Family of 4
3.4. Observed Serving Sizes and Their Estimated Cost for Diets with above-Median HEI Scores for Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Populations in NHANES 2013–16: Data for a Family of 4
3.5. H-TFP Optimization Models Compared to the TFP 2021
3.6. Distribution of H-TFP Market Basket Costs
3.7. A Vegetarian H-TFP Was Not Mathematically Feasible
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Protein Foods | Model 1 H-TFP | Model 2 H-TFP Pork | Model 3 Vegetarian |
---|---|---|---|
Modeling Categories | |||
Beef/pork | Separate | Separate | Separate |
Beef | Defined by QP | Set to 0 | Set to 0 |
Pork | Defined by QP | Set to meat + poultry in Model 1 | Set to 0 |
Cured meat | Defined by QP | Set to 0 | Set to 0 |
Poultry | Defined by QP | Set to 0 | Set to 0 |
Seafood | Defined by QP | Defined by QP | Set to 0 |
Mixed dishes—meat, poultry, or seafood | Defined by QP | Defined by QP | Set to 0 |
Eggs, nuts, and soy | Defined by QP | Defined by QP | Defined by QP |
Constraints | |||
Total cost | Same as USDA TFP | Same as USDA TFP | Same as USDA TFP |
Min/max amounts from US-Style Food Pattern | Applied | Applied except for poultry and meat | Applied except for poultry, meat, seafood, meat/poultry/eggs, and total protein |
Nutrients | Min/max amounts from DRIS for each age–gender group | ||
Objective function | Deviation from observed intakes weighted by cost—minimized |
Variable | Modality | n | % Hispanic (N = 4180) | % Non-Hispanic (N = 9646) | p-Values (Chi2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hispanic origin | Mexican American | 2586 | 63.0 | 0 | |
Other Hispanic | 1594 | 37.0 | 0 | ||
Gender | Male | 6750 | 49.3 | 49.6 | <0.001 |
Female | 7076 | 50.67 | 50.4 | ||
Reference person education level | Less than high school | 2984 | 37.0 | 9.89 | <0.001 |
High school graduate | 2950 | 22.0 | 19.7 | ||
Some college | 4091 | 24.9 | 32.1 | ||
College graduate | 3343 | 12.0 | 34.8 | ||
Refused/DK/missing | 458 | 4.18 | 3.48 | ||
Family income to poverty ratio (FIPR) | <1 | 3352 | 29.8 | 13.7 | <0.001 |
1–1.99 | 3343 | 27.2 | 18.1 | ||
2–3.49 | 2673 | 18.6 | 21.5 | ||
≥3.5 | 3399 | 13.9 | 41.2 | ||
Missing | 1059 | 10.5 | 5.49 | ||
Annual household income | $ 0 to $ 9999 | 826 | 6.91 | 3.71 | <0.001 |
$10,000 to $ 19,999 | 1540 | 12.2 | 6.97 | ||
$20,000 to $ 34,999 | 2529 | 20.6 | 12.9 | ||
$35,000 to $ 54,999 | 2430 | 20.0 | 16.1 | ||
$55,000 to $ 74,999 | 1463 | 10.5 | 11.8 | ||
$75,000 to $99,999 | 1309 | 9.02 | 11.5 | ||
$100,000 and over | 2517 | 8.69 | 30.6 | ||
Refused/DK/missing | 660 | 7.18 | 3.12 | ||
Age–gender/group | Male 4–13 y | 1703 | 10.2 | 7.18 | <0.001 |
Male 14–19 y | 916 | 6.05 | 4.53 | ||
Male 20–50 y | 2525 | 25.2 | 23.0 | ||
Male 51–70 y | 1606 | 7.84 | 14.9 | ||
Female 4–13 y | 1628 | 10.0 | 6.29 | ||
Female 14–19 y | 938 | 6.22 | 4.41 | ||
Female 20–50 y | 2802 | 26.3 | 23.3 | ||
Female 51–70 y | 1708 | 8.16 | 16.4 |
Age–Gender/Group | Median HEI | Mean HEI | p-Value (t-Test) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hispanic | Non-Hispanic | Hispanic | Non-Hispanic | ||
Total sample | 49.3 | 48.0 | 49.5 | 50.1 | 0.226 |
Male 4–13 y | 48.7 | 46.3 | 49.0 | 47.3 | 0.072 |
Male 14–19 y | 44.1 | 44.5 | 45.2 | 44.9 | 0.814 |
Male 20–50 y | 47.0 | 47.7 | 47.8 | 48.7 | 0.368 |
Male 51–70 y | 52.5 | 50.7 | 52.0 | 52.0 | 0.959 |
Female 4–13 y | 48.9 | 46.7 | 49.6 | 47.6 | 0.044 |
Female 14–19 y | 46.8 | 44.3 | 47.4 | 46.3 | 0.300 |
Female 20–50 y | 50.3 | 48.9 | 50.5 | 51.0 | 0.454 |
Female 51–70 y | 53.5 | 52.3 | 54.3 | 53.8 | 0.514 |
Amount (g/Week) | Cost ($/Week) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Combined Categories | Hispanic | Non-Hispanic | p-Value 1 | Hispanic | Non-Hispanic |
Total vegetables | 2393 | 2442 | 12.42 | 13.95 | |
Dark green vegetables | 189 | 315 | ** | 1.37 | 2.44 |
Red and orange vegetables | 341 | 414 | * | 1.79 | 1.88 |
Beans, peas, lentils | 466 | 93.8 | **** | 1.43 | 0.29 |
Fried potato products | 513 | 567 | * | 3.88 | 4.82 |
Starchy vegetables | 205 | 294 | ns | 0.68 | 1.12 |
Other vegetables | 679 | 760 | ns | 3.27 | 3.40 |
Total fruits | 5153 | 4161 | 15.93 | 13.75 | |
Whole fruit | 2698 | 2396 | ns | 11.51 | 10.57 |
100% fruit juice | 2455 | 1765 | **** | 4.42 | 3.18 |
Total grains | 3447 | 3606 | 15.95 | 19.1 | |
Staple grains | 2025 | 1854 | * | 7.15 | 7.76 |
Cereals | 678 | 718 | ns | 2.76 | 2.76 |
Biscuits, muffins, quick breads | 345 | 471 | * | 2.32 | 3.31 |
Popcorn | 58.6 | 75.0 | ** | 0.45 | 0.63 |
Tortilla, corn, other chips | 210 | 228 | ns | 2.17 | 2.46 |
Crackers | 89.6 | 164 | ** | 0.73 | 1.42 |
Pretzels/snack mix | 41.9 | 96.1 | ** | 0.37 | 0.76 |
Total Dairy | 5886 | 6289 | 10.8 | 13.37 | |
Milk, yogurt, soy alternatives | 5571 | 5853 | ns | 7.39 | 8.80 |
Cheese | 316 | 437 | *** | 3.41 | 4.57 |
Total protein foods | 3368 | 3508 | 37.36 | 40.9 | |
Beef | 485 | 433 | ns | 11.05 | 9.51 |
Pork | 139 | 154 | * | 1.68 | 1.87 |
Cured meat | 399 | 665 | **** | 4.86 | 8.82 |
Poultry | 1107 | 1087 | ns | 10.24 | 10.28 |
Eggs | 373 | 354 | ns | 1.32 | 1.28 |
Egg-based mixed dishes | 360 | 225 | * | 1.68 | 0.97 |
Seafood | 337 | 348 | ns | 4.42 | 5.34 |
Nut and seed | 88.6 | 147 | ** | 1.14 | 2.06 |
Nut and seed butters | 29.4 | 59.5 | *** | 0.16 | 0.34 |
Soy products | 49.3 | 37.5 | ns | 0.81 | 0.43 |
Miscellaneous | 29,685 | 30,579 | 97.66 | 95.09 | |
Mixed dishes—beans, pulses | 205.5 | 110.7 | ** | 0.59 | 0.31 |
Mixed dishes—grain-based | 4471 | 3268 | **** | 24.23 | 16.44 |
Mixed dishes—meat, poultry, seafood | 1031 | 1310 | * | 7.82 | 9.64 |
Pizza | 1003 | 1167 | * | 8.24 | 10.01 |
Sandwiches | 1384 | 1256 | * | 8.96 | 9.11 |
Mixed dishes—vegetables | 550 | 838 | ** | 2.56 | 3.89 |
Soups | 1508 | 1046 | * | 4.85 | 2.85 |
Coffee and tea | 5298 | 6957 | ** | 4.95 | 4.62 |
Butter and animal fats | 29.4 | 31.0 | *** | 0.29 | 0.28 |
Margarine, oils, cream | 302 | 397 | ** | 1.49 | 2.05 |
Condiments and sauces | 460 | 482 | * | 2.32 | 2.74 |
Sugar and sugar substitutes | 168 | 203 | * | 0.75 | 0.85 |
Sodas | 8364 | 8387 | * | 10.17 | 10.32 |
Fruit drinks | 2242 | 2268 | ns | 2.51 | 2.40 |
Other beverages | 704 | 630 | ns | 2.20 | 2.37 |
Sweet bakery products | 1021 | 987 | ns | 9.31 | 8.22 |
Snack bars | 73.8 | 106 | * | 1.02 | 1.56 |
Candy | 206 | 352 | **** | 2.43 | 4.03 |
Other desserts | 664 | 788 | ns | 2.97 | 3.40 |
TOTAL | 49,932 | 50,585 | 190.12 | 196.16 |
Amount (g/Week) | Cost ($/Week) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Combined Categories | Hispanic | Non-Hispanic | p-Value 1 | Hispanic | Non-Hispanic |
Total vegetables | 2848 | 2808 | 14.25 | 15.8 | |
Dark green vegetables | 258.0 | 456.8 | ** | 1.87 | 3.54 |
Red and orange vegetables | 389.2 | 536.0 | ** | 2.04 | 2.44 |
Beans, peas, lentils | 753.9 | 168.6 | **** | 2.31 | 0.51 |
Fried potato products | 245.1 | 346.7 | ns | 0.82 | 1.32 |
Starchy vegetables | 523.4 | 542.7 | ns | 3.95 | 4.61 |
Other vegetables | 678.1 | 757.1 | ns | 3.26 | 3.38 |
Total fruits | 4861 | 3638 | 12.86 | 10.55 | |
Whole fruit | 1667 | 1531 | ns | 7.11 | 6.75 |
100% fruit juice | 3194 | 2108 | *** | 5.75 | 3.80 |
Total grains | 2120 | 2221 | 10.54 | 12.61 | |
Staple grains | 1049 | 923.5 | * | 3.70 | 3.86 |
Cereals | 446.4 | 465.1 | ns | 1.81 | 1.79 |
Biscuits, muffins, quick breads | 330.8 | 393.1 | ns | 2.22 | 2.77 |
Popcorn | 33.5 | 39.5 | * | 0.26 | 0.33 |
Tortilla, corn, other chips | 185.0 | 222.6 | ns | 1.92 | 2.41 |
Crackers | 41.9 | 80.1 | * | 0.34 | 0.69 |
Pretzels/snack mix | 33.4 | 96.8 | *** | 0.29 | 0.76 |
Total dairy | 2815 | 3155 | 6.34 | 8.07 | |
Milk, yogurt, soy alternatives | 2541 | 2784 | ns | 3.37 | 4.19 |
Cheese | 274.9 | 370.9 | ns | 2.97 | 3.88 |
Total protein foods | 2502 | 2687 | 26.83 | 30.78 | |
Beef | 225.4 | 204.8 | ns | 5.13 | 4.50 |
Pork | 86.1 | 73.4 | ns | 1.04 | 0.89 |
Cured meat | 311.2 | 547.7 | ** | 3.80 | 7.27 |
Poultry | 594.4 | 580.3 | ns | 5.50 | 5.49 |
Eggs | 401.0 | 379.0 | ns | 1.42 | 1.37 |
Egg-based mixed dishes | 178.2 | 112.3 | ns | 0.83 | 0.49 |
Seafood | 516.3 | 506.1 | ns | 6.76 | 7.77 |
Nut and seed | 75.1 | 127.1 | ** | 0.97 | 1.78 |
Nut and seed butters | 45.3 | 98.5 | ** | 0.24 | 0.56 |
Soy products | 69.0 | 57.4 | ns | 1.14 | 0.66 |
Miscellaneous | 13,586 | 14,244 | 50.26 | 50.74 | |
Mixed dishes—beans, pulses | 133.5 | 86.1 | * | 0.38 | 0.24 |
Mixed dishes—grain-based | 1765 | 1496 | * | 9.57 | 7.53 |
Mixed dishes—meat, poultry, seafood | 579.6 | 725.6 | ns | 4.40 | 5.34 |
Pizza | 307.8 | 335.1 | ns | 2.53 | 2.88 |
Sandwiches | 492.0 | 473.7 | ns | 3.18 | 3.44 |
Mixed dishes—vegetables | 297.1 | 434.1 | * | 1.38 | 2.02 |
Soups | 637.2 | 482.2 | * | 2.05 | 1.31 |
Coffee and tea | 2172 | 2916 | ** | 2.03 | 1.94 |
Butter and animal fats | 29.4 | 29.4 | *** | 0.29 | 0.26 |
Margarine, oils, cream | 250.7 | 364.3 | ** | 1.24 | 1.88 |
Condiments and sauces | 365.3 | 375.9 | * | 1.84 | 2.14 |
Sugar and sugar substitutes | 150.3 | 165.1 | ns | 0.67 | 0.69 |
Sodas | 2867 | 2879 | * | 3.49 | 3.54 |
Fruit drinks | 910.3 | 803.0 | * | 1.02 | 0.85 |
Other beverages | 1033 | 1034 | ns | 3.22 | 3.88 |
Sweet bakery products | 787.4 | 640.1 | * | 7.18 | 5.33 |
Snack bars | 102.3 | 134.9 | * | 1.41 | 1.99 |
Candy | 166.6 | 242.4 | * | 1.97 | 2.78 |
Other desserts | 538.4 | 626.3 | * | 2.41 | 2.70 |
TOTAL | 28,732 | 28,753 | 121.08 | 128.55 |
TFP 2021 (US Old) 1 | Model 1 H-TFP | Model 2 H-TFP Pork | TFP 2021 (US Old) 1 | Model 1 H-TFP | Model 2 H-TFP Pork | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Market Basket | Amount, g/Week | Amount, g/Week | Amount, g/Week | Cost, $/Week | Cost, $/Week | Cost, $/Week |
Total vegetables | 10,962 | 11,020 | 11,013 | 40.19 | 40.35 | 41.08 |
Dark green vegetables | 1155 | 1198 | 1195 | 5.67 | 5.92 | 5.91 |
Red and orange vegetables | 2795 | 2800 | 2848 | 9.64 | 10.05 | 10.13 |
Beans, peas, lentils | 1720 | 1686 | 1663 | 5.26 | 5.15 | 5.04 |
Starchy vegetables | 2608 | 2870 | 2782 | 10.65 | 11.16 | 10.91 |
Other vegetables | 2684 | 2466 | 2525 | 8.97 | 8.07 | 9.09 |
Total fruits | 10,734 | 10,445 | 10,828 | 27.73 | 26.08 | 27.05 |
Whole fruit | 5356 | 4645 | 4824 | 17.94 | 15.99 | 16.61 |
100% fruit juice | 5378 | 5800 | 6004 | 9.79 | 10.09 | 10.44 |
Total grains | 8627 | 10,461 | 9675 | 28.2 | 29.42 | 30.46 |
Whole-grain rice, pasta, breads, tortillas | 3441 | 2665 | 2943 | 14.76 | 11.07 | 12.26 |
Whole-grain cereals (oatmeal, RTE cereal) | 2350 | 5374 | 4035 | 5.58 | 10.42 | 7.83 |
Refined-grain rice, pasta, breads, tortillas | 2698 | 2138 | 1987 | 6.78 | 5.28 | 4.83 |
Refined-grain cereals, crackers, snacks | 138 | 284 | 710 | 1.08 | 2.65 | 5.54 |
Total dairy | 16,381 | 11,405 | 14,818 | 29.12 | 27.05 | 25.49 |
Lower nutrient density milk, yogurt, soy | 4840 | 0 | 1500 | 7.24 | 0 | 2.05 |
Higher nutrient density milk, yogurt, soy | 10,551 | 9766 | 12,336 | 13.74 | 10.88 | 13.75 |
Cheese | 990 | 1639 | 982 | 8.14 | 16.17 | 9.69 |
Total protein foods | 6499 | 6406 | 6246 | 46.69 | 46.64 | 49.76 |
Beef | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.00 |
Pork | 928 | 1285 | 3259 | 6.9 | 11.27 | 28.54 |
Cured meat | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.00 |
Poultry | 2573 | 1974 | 0 | 18.26 | 13.57 | 0.00 |
Eggs | 904 | 1034 | 872 | 3.29 | 3.69 | 3.12 |
Seafood | 1235 | 1223 | 1223 | 13.38 | 13.21 | 13.21 |
Nuts, seeds, soy products | 859 | 890 | 892 | 4.86 | 4.9 | 4.89 |
Miscellaneous | 7846 | 10,032 | 7999 | 17.99 | 20.35 | 16.07 |
RTE soups, entrees, pizza, side dishes | 3861 | 3866 | 3743 | 12.73 | 11.36 | 11.70 |
Coffee and tea | 3360 | 3360 | 3360 | 1.75 | 1.8 | 1.80 |
Table fats and oils | 346 | 185 | 351 | 1.86 | 1.02 | 1.83 |
Sauces, condiments, sweets, spices | 61 | 182 | 15 | 0.26 | 0.8 | 0.07 |
Other misc. foods and beverages | 218 | 2439 | 530 | 1.39 | 5.37 | 0.67 |
Total | 61,049 | 59,769 | 60,579 | 189.91 | 189.91 | 189.91 |
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Poinsot, R.; Maillot, M.; Drewnowski, A. Hispanic Thrifty Food Plan (H-TFP): Healthy, Affordable, and Culturally Relevant. Nutrients 2024, 16, 2915. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172915
Poinsot R, Maillot M, Drewnowski A. Hispanic Thrifty Food Plan (H-TFP): Healthy, Affordable, and Culturally Relevant. Nutrients. 2024; 16(17):2915. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172915
Chicago/Turabian StylePoinsot, Romane, Matthieu Maillot, and Adam Drewnowski. 2024. "Hispanic Thrifty Food Plan (H-TFP): Healthy, Affordable, and Culturally Relevant" Nutrients 16, no. 17: 2915. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172915