Total Antioxidant Capacity from Dietary Supplement Decreases the Likelihood of Having Metabolic Syndrome in Korean Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Subjects
2.2. Estimation of Antioxidant Intake from Diet and Dietary Supplements
2.3. Estimation of TAC from Diet and Dietary Supplements
2.4. Diagnosis of MetS
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. General Characteristics of Study Subjects
3.2. Antioxidant Intakes and Contribution of Dietary Supplements
3.3. Association Between Antioxidant Intake and MetS
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Total n (%) | Non-Users n (%) | DS Users n (%) | p-Value 1 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 6308 (100) | 4461 (75.5) | 1847 (24.5) | |
Sex | <0.0001 | |||
Male | 2599 (52.6) | 2044 (57.0) | 555 (39.1) | |
Female | 3709 (47.4) | 2417 (43.0) | 1292 (60.9) | |
Age | <0.0001 | |||
19–29 | 931 (23.0) | 776 (26.0) | 155 (13.7) | |
30–49 | 2947 (48.7) | 2137 (48.7) | 810 (48.6) | |
50–64 | 2430 (28.3) | 1548 (25.3) | 882 (37.7) | |
Education | 0.0025 | |||
≤Elementary | 892 (11.2) | 636 (11.2) | 256 (11.1) | |
Middle school | 715 (10.3) | 486 (10.1) | 229 (11.1) | |
High school | 2424 (43.2) | 1766 (44.6) | 658 (38.8) | |
≥College | 2171 (35.3) | 1493 (34.1) | 678 (39.0) | |
Household income 2 | <0.0001 | |||
Lowest | 680 (11.3) | 535 (12.3) | 147 (8.3) | |
Lower middle | 1639 (28.0) | 1219 (28.9) | 420 (25.5) | |
Upper middle | 2017 (32.8) | 1423 (33.0) | 594 (32.0) | |
Highest | 1905 (27.9) | 1233 (25.8) | 672 (34.2) | |
BMI | NS | |||
<23 | 2915 (45.5) | 2022 (44.6) | 893 (48.2) | |
23–25 | 1429 (22.8) | 997 (22.8) | 432 (22.6) | |
≥25 | 1964 (31.7) | 1442 (32.5) | 522 (29.2) | |
Alcohol consumption (Yes) 3 | 3514 (61.7) | 2620 (64.5) | 894 (52.9) | <0.0001 |
Current smoking (Yes) 4 | 1319 (27.6) | 1089 (31.2) | 230 (16.5) | <0.0001 |
Regular physical activity (Yes) 5 | 615 (10.1) | 436 (10.1) | 179 (10.1) | NS |
Nutrient intakes (mean ± SE) | NS | |||
Energy (kcal/day) | 2124.0 ± 15.0 | 2135.8 ± 18.1 | 2088.9 ± 25.4 | |
Carbohydrate (g/day) | 332.3 ± 2.4 | 331.2 ± 2.7 | 336.0 ± 4.1 | |
Protein (g/day) | 77.6 ± 0.7 | 77.5 ± 0.8 | 77.9 ± 1.2 | |
Fat (g/day) | 45.6 ± 0.5 | 46.1 ± 0.7 | 44.2 ± 0.9 |
Antioxidants | Non-Users (n = 4461) | DS Users (n = 1847) | p-Value 2 | p-Value 3 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diet | Diet | DS | Total 1 | Supplement Contribution (%) | |||
Antioxidant intake (each unit/day) | |||||||
Vitamin A (µgRE) | 800.4 ± 18.2 | 902.0 ± 31.0 | 203.2 ± 14.4 | 1105.1 ± 35.5 | 18.4 | 0.0133 | <0.0001 |
Retinol (µg) | 126.0 ± 8.8 | 143.6 ± 13.4 | 30.7 ± 5.5 | 174.3 ± 14.3 | 17.6 | 0.1065 | 0.0009 |
Carotenoids (µg) | 9033.6 ± 248.7 | 9955.4 ± 341.8 | 113.9 ± 17.2 | 10,069.0 ± 341.8 | 1.1 | 0.1452 | 0.0789 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 104.7 ± 3.3 | 126.4 ± 4.5 | 252.1 ± 14.9 | 378.5 ± 15.2 | 66.6 | 0.0522 | <0.0001 |
Vitamin E (mg) | 15.0 ± 0.2 | 16.1 ± 0.3 | 10.0 ± 0.9 | 26.2 ± 1.0 | 38.2 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
Flavonoids (mg) | 198.5 ± 7.7 | 241.5 ± 9.9 | - | 241.5 ± 9.9 | - | 0.0506 | - |
TAC (mg VCE) | 378.0 ± 13.4 | 459.7 ± 17.7 | 254.9 ± 14.9 | 714.5 ± 22.5 | 35.7 | 0.0601 | <0.0001 |
Antioxidant density (each unit/1000 kcal/day) | |||||||
Vitamin A (µgRE) | 385.1 ± 7.8 | 433.2 ± 12.6 | 114.7 ± 8.1 | 547.9 ± 15.9 | 20.9 | 0.2773 | <0.0001 |
Retinol (µg) | 56.8 ± 3.2 | 65.4 ± 5.1 | 17.5 ± 3.2 | 82.9 ± 6.0 | 21.1 | 0.1406 | 0.0002 |
Carotenoids (µg) | 4426.6 ± 115.7 | 4926.5 ± 167.4 | 67.7 ± 11.7 | 4994.3 ± 167.3 | 1.4 | 0.6027 | 0.3695 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 51.0 ± 1.5 | 63.0 ± 2.1 | 139.0 ± 8.1 | 202.0 ± 8.1 | 68.8 | 0.0997 | <0.0001 |
Vitamin E (mg) | 7.1 ± 0.1 | 7.8 ± 0.1 | 5.6 ± 0.5 | 13.4 ± 0.5 | 41.8 | 0.0001 | <0.0001 |
Flavonoids (mg) | 96.7 ± 3.3 | 121.8 ± 4.9 | - | 121.8 ± 4.9 | - | 0.0826 | - |
TAC (mg VCE) | 183.8 ± 6.1 | 229.8 ± 8.6 | 140.6 ± 8.1 | 370.4 ± 11.0 | 38.0 | 0.1516 | <0.0001 |
MetS and Its Risk Factors | Non-Users (n = 4461) | DS Users (n = 1847) | Total (n = 6308) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MetS OR (95%CI) 1 | 1 | 0.82 (0.68–0.98) | |||||||
Antioxidant intake level 2 | Antioxidant intake level 2 | ||||||||
T1 | T2 | T3 | T1 | T2 | T3 | T1 | T2 | T3 | |
Metabolic syndrome | |||||||||
Vitamin A | 1 | 1.10 (0.86–1.41) 3 | 0.93 (0.74–1.17) | 0.79 (0.59–1.06) | 0.97 (0.72–1.31) | 0.72 (0.53–0.99) | 1 | 1.03 (0.83–1.27) | 0.90 (0.73–1.10) |
Retinol | 1 | 1.17 (0.90–1.52) | 1.17 (0.93–1.47) | 0.97 (0.73–1.30) | 1.01 (0.73–1.38) | 0.73 (0.52–1.03) | 1 | 1.08 (0.88–1.34) | 1.05 (0.87–1.28) |
Carotenoids | 1 | 1.10 (0.87–1.39) | 0.96 (0.76–1.23) | 0.82 (0.61–1.10) | 0.81 (0.59–1.10) | 0.89 (0.66–1.18) | 1 | 0.96 (0.79–1.16) | 0.96 (0.79–1.16) |
Vitamin C | 1 | 1.07 (0.85–1.34) | 1.04 (0.82–1.32) | 0.94 (0.68–1.28) | 0.84 (0.62–1.13) | 0.75 (0.56–1.02) | 1 | 1.07 (0.88–1.29) | 0.84 (0.68–1.04) |
Vitamin E | 1 | 0.91 (0.71–1.15) | 0.98 (0.77–1.23) | 0.79 (0.58–1.08) | 0.82 (0.60–1.14) | 0.74 (0.55–0.99) | 1 | 0.97 (0.80–1.19) | 0.95 (0.78–1.16) |
Flavonoids | 1 | 0.97 (0.77–1.23) | 0.99 (0.79–1.24) | - | - | - | 1 | 1.06 (0.87–1.29) | 0.95 (0.79–1.15) |
TAC | 1 | 1.01 (0.79–1.28) | 0.94 (0.73–1.20) | 0.93 (0.69–1.25) | 0.73 (0.54–0.99) | 0.72 (0.52–0.99) | 1 | 1.06 (0.87–1.28) | 0.86 (0.71–1.05) |
Abdominal obesity 4 | |||||||||
Vitamin A | 1 | 1.07 (0.87–1.32) | 1.19 (0.96–1.47) | 0.88 (0.68–1.15) | 0.94 (0.70–1.26) | 0.83 (0.63–1.11) | 1 | 1.09 (0.91–1.30) | 1.07 (0.89–1.28) |
Retinol | 1 | 1.08 (0.86–1.35) | 1.04 (0.84–1.29) | 0.87 (0.66–1.14) | 0.73 (0.56–0.96) | 0.94 (0.71–1.26) | 1 | 0.99 (0.82–1.20) | 1.06 (0.88–1.28) |
Carotenoids | 1 | 1.24 (1.01–1.53) | 1.10 (0.89–1.36) | 0.89 (0.69–1.17) | 0.89 (0.67–1.18) | 0.94 (0.72–1.24) | 1 | 1.13 (0.95–1.34) | 1.07 (0.90–1.27) |
Vitamin C | 1 | 0.92 (0.74–1.14) | 0.97 (0.78–1.20) | 0.81 (0.63–1.05) | 0.76 (0.57–1.02) | 0.77 (0.58–1.03) | 1 | 0.94 (0.80–1.12) | 0.87 (0.72–1.05) |
Vitamin E | 1 | 0.82 (0.66–1.02) | 0.85 (0.69–1.05) | 0.80 (0.60–1.06) | 0.72 (0.53–0.96) | 0.66 (0.52–0.84) | 1 | 0.86 (0.72–1.04) | 0.82 (0.69–0.97) |
Flavonoids | 1 | 0.84 (0.67–1.06) | 0.90 (0.72–1.12) | - | - | - | 1 | 0.89 (0.74–1.06) | 0.93 (0.77–1.12) |
TAC | 1 | 0.96 (0.77–1.20) | 0.99 (0.80–1.23) | 0.85 (0.66–1.10) | 0.75 (0.56–1.00) | 0.79 (0.59–1.04) | 1 | 1.01 (0.84–1.21) | 0.92 (0.76–1.12) |
Elevated triglycerides 5 | |||||||||
Vitamin A | 1 | 0.96 (0.78–1.19) | 0.84 (0.69–1.02) | 0.81 (0.59–1.11) | 0.89 (0.69–1.16) | 0.78 (0.58–1.04) | 1 | 1.03 (0.87–1.23) | 0.87 (0.73–1.02) |
Retinol | 1 | 1.04 (0.83–1.30) | 0.98 (0.79–1.21) | 0.90 (0.67–1.20) | 1.04 (0.77–1.40) | 0.75 (0.54–1.02) | 1 | 1.01 (0.84–1.22) | 0.95 (0.79–1.14) |
Carotenoids | 1 | 1.01 (0.84–1.23) | 0.85 (0.69–1.05) | 0.82 (0.60–1.11) | 0.83 (0.63–1.08) | 0.91 (0.69–1.19) | 1 | 0.93 (0.79–1.11) | 0.91 (0.76–1.08) |
Vitamin C | 1 | 1.13 (0.92–1.39) | 1.09 (0.88–1.37) | 1.01 (0.75–1.36) | 0.98 (0.74–1.29) | 0.87 (0.63–1.21) | 1 | 1.17 (0.98–1.40) | 0.95 (0.78–1.15) |
Vitamin E | 1 | 1.05 (0.85–1.29) | 1.00 (0.80–1.24) | 0.95 (0.70–1.28) | 0.98 (0.74–1.30) | 0.78 (0.59–1.03) | 1 | 0.95 (0.79–1.14) | 0.93 (0.78–1.11) |
Flavonoids | 1 | 0.89 (0.72–1.10) | 0.90 (0.72–1.12) | - | - | - | 1 | 0.96 (0.80–1.15) | 0.90 (0.75–1.09) |
TAC | 1 | 1.02 (0.83–1.25) | 0.96 (0.78–1.19) | 0.99 (0.75–1.32) | 0.79 (0.59–1.06) | 0.84 (0.61–1.15) | 1 | 1.03 (0.86–1.24) | 0.93 (0.76–1.13) |
Reduced HDL-C 6 | |||||||||
Vitamin A | 1 | 0.96 (0.81–1.16) | 0.91 (0.75–1.10) | 1.01 (0.79–1.29) | 0.92 (0.72–1.17) | 0.72 (0.57–0.93) | 1 | 0.88 (0.75–1.03) | 0.88 (0.75–1.03) |
Retinol | 1 | 1.13 (0.93–1.38) | 1.03 (0.85–1.24) | 1.05 (0.82–1.35) | 0.97 (0.76–1.23) | 0.90 (0.69–1.18) | 1 | 1.09 (0.92–1.28) | 1.01 (0.86–1.18) |
Carotenoids | 1 | 0.96 (0.80–1.17) | 1.13 (0.94–1.36) | 0.98 (0.78–1.25) | 0.94 (0.74–1.20) | 0.92 (0.73–1.17) | 1 | 0.95 (0.80–1.12) | 1.08 (0.92–1.28) |
Vitamin C | 1 | 1.29 (1.06–1.58) | 1.20 (0.99–1.46) | 1.13 (0.88–1.45) | 1.12 (0.87–1.44) | 0.98 (0.76–1.26) | 1 | 1.16 (0.99–1.36) | 1.06 (0.89–1.25) |
Vitamin E | 1 | 1.04 (0.86–1.25) | 1.15 (0.95–1.4) | 0.92 (0.71–1.2) | 1.22 (0.96–1.56) | 0.83 (0.66–1.05) | 1 | 1.07 (0.91–1.27) | 1.07 (0.91–1.26) |
Flavonoids | 1 | 1.00 (0.82–1.21) | 1.17 (0.96–1.43) | - | - | - | 1 | 1.06 (0.90–1.24) | 1.15 (0.97–1.35) |
TAC | 1 | 0.92 (0.76–1.11) | 1.19 (0.97–1.45) | 0.88 (0.68–1.13) | 1.14 (0.89–1.45) | 0.87 (0.67–1.13) | 1 | 1.09 (0.93–1.28) | 1.13 (0.96–1.33) |
Elevated blood pressure 7 | |||||||||
Vitamin A | 1 | 1.05 (0.84–1.32) | 1.08 (0.86–1.35) | 1.30 (0.94–1.81) | 1.01 (0.74–1.39) | 0.85 (0.62–1.15) | 1 | 1.03 (0.84–1.25) | 1.00 (0.82–1.21) |
Retinol | 1 | 0.98 (0.79–1.22) | 1.03 (0.82–1.29) | 1.26 (0.94–1.68) | 0.94 (0.69–1.27) | 0.86 (0.63–1.17) | 1 | 0.89 (0.73–1.07) | 0.89 (0.73–1.10) |
Carotenoids | 1 | 1.12 (0.89–1.40) | 1.00 (0.8–1.26) | 1.22 (0.87–1.71) | 1.07 (0.78–1.48) | 0.85 (0.62–1.17) | 1 | 1.02 (0.84–1.24) | 0.93 (0.77–1.13) |
Vitamin C | 1 | 1.04 (0.83–1.30) | 0.92 (0.72–1.18) | 1.09 (0.79–1.50) | 0.91 (0.65–1.26) | 0.96 (0.67–1.39) | 1 | 1.04 (0.85–1.27) | 0.84 (0.69–1.03) |
Vitamin E | 1 | 0.98 (0.78–1.22) | 0.87 (0.68–1.11) | 1.02 (0.75–1.40) | 0.92 (0.67–1.27) | 0.93 (0.69–1.26) | 1 | 0.94 (0.77–1.14) | 0.94 (0.77–1.16) |
Flavonoids | 1 | 0.96 (0.75–1.22) | 0.96 (0.76–1.22) | - | - | - | 1 | 0.99 (0.82–1.19) | 0.98 (0.80–1.19) |
TAC | 1 | 1.07 (0.85–1.34) | 0.93 (0.74–1.18) | 1.04 (0.77–1.40) | 1.03 (0.76–1.40) | 0.94 (0.67–1.31) | 1 | 1.05 (0.88–1.26) | 0.91 (0.74–1.12) |
Elevated fasting glucose 8 | |||||||||
Vitamin A | 1 | 1.05 (0.83–1.32) | 1.01 (0.81–1.26) | 0.79 (0.59–1.07) | 1.02 (0.76–1.38) | 1.11 (0.83–1.48) | 1 | 1.09 (0.90–1.32) | 1.17 (0.96–1.42) |
Retinol | 1 | 0.99 (0.80–1.22) | 0.92 (0.72–1.17) | 0.85 (0.63–1.14) | 1.01 (0.76–1.36) | 0.91 (0.67–1.23) | 1 | 1.01 (0.84–1.22) | 0.93 (0.76–1.14) |
Carotenoids | 1 | 1.13 (0.89–1.43) | 1.12 (0.88–1.43) | 0.94 (0.70–1.27) | 1.01 (0.74–1.38) | 1.14 (0.84–1.55) | 1 | 1.03 (0.85–1.25) | 1.13 (0.92–1.39) |
Vitamin C | 1 | 0.94 (0.74–1.18) | 0.94 (0.73–1.22) | 0.86 (0.63–1.17) | 0.95 (0.71–1.27) | 0.93 (0.68–1.27) | 1 | 0.93 (0.76–1.13) | 0.96 (0.78–1.18) |
Vitamin E | 1 | 0.98 (0.78–1.24) | 1.02 (0.8–1.28) | 0.89 (0.66–1.21) | 0.85 (0.63–1.15) | 0.99 (0.74–1.34) | 1 | 0.98 (0.81–1.18) | 1.08 (0.89–1.31) |
Flavonoids | 1 | 1.04 (0.82–1.32) | 1.00 (0.80–1.27) | - | - | - | 1 | 1.16 (0.95–1.40) | 1.00 (0.81–1.22) |
TAC | 1 | 1.04 (0.82–1.31) | 0.86 (0.68–1.10) | 0.91 (0.67–1.25) | 0.85 (0.62–1.16) | 0.97 (0.71–1.33) | 1 | 1.05 (0.85–1.30) | 0.89 (0.73–1.10) |
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Kim, S.; Song, Y.; Lee, J.E.; Jun, S.; Shin, S.; Wie, G.-A.; Cho, Y.H.; Joung, H. Total Antioxidant Capacity from Dietary Supplement Decreases the Likelihood of Having Metabolic Syndrome in Korean Adults. Nutrients 2017, 9, 1055. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9101055
Kim S, Song Y, Lee JE, Jun S, Shin S, Wie G-A, Cho YH, Joung H. Total Antioxidant Capacity from Dietary Supplement Decreases the Likelihood of Having Metabolic Syndrome in Korean Adults. Nutrients. 2017; 9(10):1055. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9101055
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Subeen, YoonJu Song, Jung Eun Lee, Shinyoung Jun, Sangah Shin, Gyung-Ah Wie, Yoon Hee Cho, and Hyojee Joung. 2017. "Total Antioxidant Capacity from Dietary Supplement Decreases the Likelihood of Having Metabolic Syndrome in Korean Adults" Nutrients 9, no. 10: 1055. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9101055