Food Sources of Sodium Intake in an Adult Mexican Population: A Sub-Analysis of the SALMEX Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Assessments
2.2.1. Anthropometric and Blood Pressure Measurements
2.2.2. Estimating Total Sodium Intake
2.2.3. Identifying Food Sources of Sodium
- (a)
- To identify foods in the food supply that contain high amounts of sodium, the Nutrikal®VO (V2) nutrient software database, which contains the nutritional composition of common Mexican foods, was used. Database food items with a sodium content ≥480 mg/100 g of food product were identified. The cut-off of 480 mg of sodium/100 g of product as a means to identify potential food sources of sodium, was based on the rationale that a percent daily value (%DV) of 20% provided by a product-specific serving size is considered high by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Since the reference daily value was 2400 mg/sodium, 480 mg represented this 20% DV [25]. In Mexico, there is currently no a reference %DV to classify nutrient DVs reported on the food labels as high or low. Additionally, in this study, due to the complexity of determining product-specific serving sizes, we selected a standard portion of 100 g of product for all food items to identify a sodium content of 480 mg.
- (b)
- To identify food sources of sodium not included in the Nutrikal®VO (V2) nutrient software database, an expert panel made up of two nutritional epidemiologists and one nutritionist scientist reviewed the Nutrikal®VO (V2) food list and developed a list of foods that were missing in the database, but are highly consumed by the Mexican population. The additional foods considered for inclusion were confirmed to have a sodium content ≥480 mg/100 g (e.g., carnitas and cecina tacos, panela cheese, chorizo, and some hot sauces and hot chili powder seasonings). Sodium content was obtained from food labels for packaged foods, and from the Tables of Composition of Mexican Foods and Food Products [21] in the case of tacos.
- (c)
- To identify foods containing moderate amounts of sodium that are consumed highly frequently by the Mexican population, and thus cumulatively may contribute significant amounts of sodium, the same expert panel identified food items with sodium content >120 mg sodium/100 g of product. At this stage, foods such as Mexican street food [Mexican little whims (antojitos mexicanos)], cereal bars, some packaged cookies and bakery goods, and some type of chips, were included. Sodium content was obtained from the Nutrikal®VO (V2) nutrient software database, food labels, and the Tables of Composition of Mexican Foods and Food Products [21]. Based on the rationale that a 5% DV or less (equivalent to 120 mg/sodium or less according to a DV of 2400 mg/sodium) provided by a product-specific serving size is considered low [25], we also focused on products with sodium content >120 mg/100 g of product in order to ensure inclusion of moderate-sodium food items that may represent a relevant food source of sodium in this population.
2.2.4. Twenty-Four-Hour Urinary Sodium Excretion
2.3. Statistical Analysis
- (a)
- an average daily sodium intake in mg from the three days recorded, provided by each food category; and
- (b)
- the percentage that each food category contributed to total sodium intake, which was estimated by the three-day food record.
3. Results
4. Discussion
Study Limitations
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Overall (n = 950) | Men (n = 358) | Women (n = 592) | p Value 2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 38.6 ± 10.7 | 37.6 ± 10.8 | 39.1 ± 10.6 | 0.04 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 27.1 ± 4.8 | 27.3 ± 4.3 | 27.0 ± 5.0 | 0.30 |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 3 | 119.0 ± 14.0 | 125.2 ± 13.7 | 115.4 ± 12.8 | <0.001 |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 3 | 75.0 ± 9.3 | 77.5 ± 9.9 | 73.5 ± 8.6 | <0.001 |
Dietary sodium intake (mg/day) | 2647.2 ± 976.9 | 3018.2 ± 1091.9 | 2422.9 ± 823.6 | <0.001 |
24-h urinary sodium excretion (mg/24 h) 4 | 3497.2 ± 1393.0 | 4167.7 ± 1520.2 | 3118.3 ± 1156.4 | <0.001 |
Food Category | Overall (n = 950) | Men (n = 358) | Women (n = 592) | p Value 2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Savory bread (bolillo, telera, baguette, sliced bread, hot dog buns, and others) | 800 (84.2) | 306 (85.5) | 494 (83.4) | 0.41 |
Processed meat (deli meat, sausages, bacon, chorizo, machaca and smoked pork chop) | 692 (72.8) | 268 (74.9) | 424 (71.6) | 0.28 |
Natural cheeses (Panela, Oaxaca, Goat, Parmesan, Brie, Camembert, Cheddar, Swiss, Gouda, Manchego, cream cheese, Provolone, etc.) | 669 (70.4) | 228 (63.7) | 441 (74.5) | <0.001 |
Sweet bakery goods (packaged and unpackaged) | 650 (68.4) | 249 (69.6) | 401 (67.7) | 0.56 |
Salad dressings and mayonnaise | 452 (47.6) | 167 (46.6) | 285 (48.1) | 0.66 |
Cookies and cereal bars | 369 (38.8) | 125 (34.9) | 244 (41.2) | 0.054 |
Chips (potato, corn and wheat) | 269 (28.3) | 96 (26.8) | 173 (29.2) | 0.43 |
Tacos (assorted) | 225 (23.7) | 106 (29.6) | 119 (20.1) | 0.001 |
Breakfast cereal | 206 (21.7) | 60 (16.8) | 146 (24.7) | 0.004 |
Canned peppers (pickled and chipotle peppers) | 176 (18.5) | 67 (18.7) | 109 (18.4) | 0.91 |
Catsup and mustard | 162 (17.1) | 62 (17.3) | 100 (16.9) | 0.87 |
Tamales (assorted) | 129 (13.6) | 50 (14.0) | 79 (13.3) | 0.79 |
Margarine and butter | 123 (12.9) | 37 (10.3) | 86 (14.5) | 0.06 |
Mole | 109 (11.5) | 45 (12.6) | 64 (10.8) | 0.41 |
Canned fish (tuna and sardines) | 104 (10.9) | 39 (10.9) | 65 (11.0) | 0.97 |
Popcorn | 99 (10.4) | 29 (8.1) | 70 (11.8) | 0.07 |
Salty nuts and seeds | 97 (10.2) | 31 (8.7) | 66 (11.1) | 0.22 |
Wheat flour tortillas | 96 (10.1) | 38 (10.6) | 58 (9.8) | 0.69 |
Hot sauces and chamoy (bottled snack sauces) | 91 (9.6) | 25 (7.0) | 66 (11.1) | 0.04 |
Seasonings (seasoning sauces, salty seasoning powders and broth cubes) | 84 (8.8) | 32 (8.9) | 52 (8.8) | 0.94 |
Pizza | 75 (7.9) | 31 (8.7) | 44 (7.4) | 0.50 |
Crackers | 72 (7.6) | 24 (6.7) | 48 (8.1) | 0.43 |
Processed cheese 3 | 69 (7.3) | 29 (8.1) | 40 (6.8) | 0.44 |
Hamburgers | 63 (6.6) | 32 (8.9) | 31 (5.2) | 0.03 |
Hot chili powder seasonings | 53 (5.6) | 10 (2.8) | 43 (7.3) | 0.004 |
Canned beans | 47 (4.9) | 21 (5.9) | 26 (4.4) | 0.31 |
Chicken nuggets | 21 (2.2) | 9 (2.5) | 12 (2.0) | 0.62 |
Instant soups | 13 (1.4) | 5 (1.4) | 8 (1.4) | 1.0 |
Chocolate milk powder | 12 (1.3) | 5 (1.4) | 7 (1.2) | 0.77 |
Olives | 7 (0.7) | 4 (1.1) | 3 (0.5) | 0.44 |
Powdered milk | 6 (0.6) | 1 (0.3) | 5 (0.8) | 0.42 |
Hot cakes flour mix | 6 (0.6) | 1 (0.3) | 5 (0.8) | 0.42 |
Peanut butter | 1 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.2) | 1.0 |
Food Category | Mg/Na/Day (n = 950) | % of Total Na Intake 3 (n = 950) |
---|---|---|
Processed meat (deli meat, sausages, bacon, chorizo, machaca and smoked pork chop) | 223.4 (205.5, 241.3) | 8.3 (7.6, 8.9) |
Savory bread (bolillo, telera, baguette, sliced bread, hot dog buns, and others) | 209.4 (198.2, 220.6) | 8.3 (7.8, 8.7) |
Sweet bakery goods (packaged and unpackaged) | 178.2 (165.9, 190.4) | 7.6 (7.0, 8.2) |
Natural cheeses (Panela, Oaxaca, Goat, Parmesan, Brie, Camembert, Cheddar, Swiss, Gouda, Manchego, cream cheese, Provolone, etc.) | 118.0 (108.5, 127.5) | 5.0 (4.5, 5.4) |
Tacos (assorted) | 113.8 (89.2, 138.3) | 5.2 (3.9, 6.5) |
Breakfast cereal | 52.7 (44.1, 61.2) | 2.1 (1.7, 2.5) |
Pizza | 46.0 (33.2, 58.7) | 1.6 (1.2, 2.1) |
Tamales (assorted) | 39.6 (32.3, 46.8) | 1.8 (1.4, 2.3) |
Chips (potato, corn and wheat) | 31.8 (26.9, 36.6) | 1.2 (1.0, 1.4) |
Seasonings (seasoning sauces, salty seasoning powders and broth cubes) | 31.5 (21.9, 41.0) | 1.1 (0.8, 1.5) |
Cookies and cereal bars | 26.4 (22.6, 30.3) | 1.1 (0.9, 1.3) |
Canned fish (tuna and sardines) | 26.3 (20.2, 32.3) | 1.1 (0.8, 1.3) |
Canned peppers (pickled and chipotle peppers) | 25.2 (19.5, 30.9) | 1.0 (0.7, 1.2) |
Mole | 24.9 (19.0, 30.8) | 1.0 (0.7, 1.2) |
Hamburger | 22.6 (16.6, 28.5) | 0.8 (0.6, 1.0) |
Salad dressings and mayonnaise | 20.5 (18.1, 23.0) | 0.8 (0.7, 0.9) |
Hot chili powder seasonings | 19.5 (8.5, 30.6) | 0.7 (0.3, 1.2) |
Catsup and mustard | 16.4 (13.0, 19.9) | 0.6 (0.5, 0.7) |
Wheat flour tortillas | 15.9 (12.5, 19.4) | 0.7 (0.5, 0.8) |
Canned beans | 12.7 (7.6, 17.7) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.6) |
Hot sauces and chamoy (bottled snack sauces) | 12.7 (8.5, 16.8) | 0.5 (0.3, 0.7) |
Salty nuts and seeds | 11.6 (7.2, 16.1) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.6) |
Processed cheese 4 | 10.7 (7.9, 13.5) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.5) |
Crackers | 9.9 (6.6, 13.2) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.5) |
Popcorn | 8.4 (5.7, 11.1) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.5) |
Margarine and butter | 5.5 (4.1, 7.0) | 0.2 (0.2, 0.3) |
Food Category | Mg/Na/Day | % of Total Na Intake 3 |
---|---|---|
Pizza | 582.1 (480.5, 683.7) | 20.6 (17.2, 24.0) |
Tacos (assorted) | 480.2 (391.8, 568.7) | 21.8 (16.9, 26.8) |
Seasonings (seasoning sauces, salty seasoning powders and broth cubes) | 355.8 (274.1, 437.5) | 12.7 (9.6, 15.7) |
Hot chili powder seasonings | 350.3 (170.2, 530.4) | 11.9 (6.0, 17.8) |
Hamburgers | 340.4 (301.9, 378.9) | 12.3 (10.6, 13.9) |
Processed meat (deli meat, sausages, bacon, chorizo, machaca and smoked pork chop) | 306.7 (285.1, 328.2) | 11.3 (10.6, 12.1) |
Tamales (assorted) | 291.5 (265.6, 317.4) | 13.5 (10.9, 16.1) |
Sweet bakery goods (packaged and unpackaged) | 260.4 (246.5, 274.3) | 11.1 (10.4, 11.9) |
Canned beans | 255.6 (180.1, 331.1) | 8.4 (6.0, 10.8) |
Breakfast cereal | 243.0 (216.5, 269.4) | 9.7 (8.5, 10.8) |
Savory bread (bolillo, telera, baguette, sliced bread, hot dog buns, and others) | 248.6 (237.2, 260.0) | 9.8 (9.4, 10.3) |
Canned fish (tuna and sardines) | 240.0 (205.5, 274.4) | 9.6 (7.9, 11.3) |
Mole | 216.7 (181.7, 251.7) | 8.5 (6.7, 10.3) |
Natural cheeses (Panela, Oaxaca, Goat, Parmesan, Brie, Camembert, Cheddar, Swiss, Gouda, Manchego, cream cheese, Provolone, etc.) | 167.6 (156.0, 179.1) | 7.0 (6.5, 7.6) |
Wheat flour tortillas | 157.8 (140.8, 174.7) | 6.7 (5.7, 7.7) |
Processed cheese 4 | 147.5 (128.3, 166.6) | 5.4 (4.7, 6.2) |
Canned peppers (pickled and chipotle peppers) | 135.8 (110.8, 160.9) | 5.2 (4.1, 6.4) |
Crackers | 130.8 (98.2, 163.3) | 4.6 (3.5, 5.8) |
Hot sauces and chamoy (bottled snack sauces) | 132.0 (96.7, 167.4) | 5.1 (3.6, 6.5) |
Salty nuts and seeds | 113.7 (75.3, 152.2) | 4.1 (3.0, 5.3) |
Chips (potato, corn and wheat) | 112.1 (99.1, 125.1) | 4.4 (3.8, 4.9) |
Catsup and mustard | 96.3 (81.1, 111.5) | 3.3 (2.8, 3.8) |
Popcorn | 80.6 (59.2, 102.0) | 3.5 (2.5, 4.5) |
Cookies and cereal bars | 68.1 (59.8, 76.3) | 2.9 (2.5, 3.3) |
Salad dressings and mayonnaise | 43.1 (38.8, 47.4) | 1.6 (1.5, 1.8) |
Margarine and butter | 42.7 (34.2, 51.3) | 1.9 (1.3, 2.4) |
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Colin-Ramirez, E.; Espinosa-Cuevas, Á.; Miranda-Alatriste, P.V.; Tovar-Villegas, V.I.; Arcand, J.; Correa-Rotter, R. Food Sources of Sodium Intake in an Adult Mexican Population: A Sub-Analysis of the SALMEX Study. Nutrients 2017, 9, 810. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9080810
Colin-Ramirez E, Espinosa-Cuevas Á, Miranda-Alatriste PV, Tovar-Villegas VI, Arcand J, Correa-Rotter R. Food Sources of Sodium Intake in an Adult Mexican Population: A Sub-Analysis of the SALMEX Study. Nutrients. 2017; 9(8):810. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9080810
Chicago/Turabian StyleColin-Ramirez, Eloisa, Ángeles Espinosa-Cuevas, Paola Vanessa Miranda-Alatriste, Verónica Ivette Tovar-Villegas, JoAnne Arcand, and Ricardo Correa-Rotter. 2017. "Food Sources of Sodium Intake in an Adult Mexican Population: A Sub-Analysis of the SALMEX Study" Nutrients 9, no. 8: 810. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9080810