Development of Robust Steel Alloys for Laser-Directed Energy Deposition via Analysis of Mechanical Property Sensitivities †
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Quantifying Robustness
2.2. Materials and Equipment
Element | Fe | Cr | Ni | Si | Mo | Mn | C | V | Cu |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UHSLA powder | Balance | 2.6 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.86 | 0.6 | 0.28 | 0.15 | <0.2 |
Iron powder | 99.89% min | 0.0295 | 0.008 | 0.0001 | 0.001 | 0.012 | 0.0075 | - | 0.0095 |
Element | O | P | S | Al | Ti | P+Sn+As+Sb | H | N | W |
UHSLA powder | 0.03 | 0.009 | 0.005 | 0.004 | <0.006 | <0.035 | 6 ppm | - | - |
Iron powder | 431 ppm | - | - | - | 0.0038 | - | - | 63 ppm | 0.042 |
2.3. Experiment #1: Hardness Sensitivity
Replicate 1 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Run | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Laser Power (W) | 650 | 1050 | 850 | 1050 | 650 |
Interlayer Delay (s) | 11 | 1 | 6 | 11 | 1 |
Replicate 2 | |||||
Run | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Laser Power (W) | 650 | 1050 | 650 | 850 | 1050 |
Interlayer Delay (s) | 1 | 11 | 11 | 6 | 1 |
2.4. Experiment #2: Tensile Property Sensitivity
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. EDS Analysis
3.2. Temperature History
3.3. Vickers Hardness
%UHSLA | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean Hardness (HV) | 127.7 | 168.2 | 229.0 | 272.5 | 332.1 | 375.5 | 417.8 | 440.6 | 469.7 | 487.7 |
Mean Hardness (HRC) * | - | - | - | 26 | 34 | 38 | 42 | 44 | 47 | 48 |
Std. Dev. Hardness (HV) | 11.3 | 16.0 | 25.1 | 34.2 | 32.8 | 27.6 | 22.2 | 24.2 | 17.8 | 27.8 |
CV Hardness (%) | 8.9 | 9.5 | 11.0 | 12.5 | 9.9 | 7.4 | 5.3 | 5.5 | 3.8 | 5.7 |
3.4. Hardness Sensitivity
%UHSLA | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R2—Replicate 1&2 | 0.15 | 0.40 | 0.50 | 0.54 | 0.65 | 0.54 | 0.21 | 0.15 | 0.16 | 0.20 |
R2—Replicate 1 | 0.30 | 0.49 | 0.50 | 0.70 | 0.75 | 0.55 | 0.21 | 0.25 | 0.38 | 0.35 |
R2—Replicate 2 | 0.08 | 0.41 | 0.57 | 0.46 | 0.64 | 0.61 | 0.38 | 0.45 | 0.47 | 0.27 |
%UHSLA | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Replicate 1&2 | 0.51 | 2.24 | 5.25 | 5.43 | 6.94 | 5.82 | 1.75 | 0.61 | 0.74 | 0.25 | |
1.92 | 4.68 | 4.36 | 5.57 | 7.85 | 5.02 | 1.75 | 1.92 | 1.98 | 2.76 | ||
Replicate 1 | 0.45 | 0.59 | 2.19 | 3.21 | 3.83 | 2.49 | 0.20 | 0.34 | 0.80 | 0.25 | |
2.01 | 3.67 | 2.73 | 5.33 | 5.94 | 3.16 | 1.58 | 1.81 | 2.52 | 2.54 | ||
Replicate 2 | 0.43 | 2.21 | 3.65 | 2.88 | 4.02 | 4.01 | 2.65 | 3.21 | 3.45 | 1.46 | |
0.52 | 1.63 | 2.29 | 1.51 | 3.37 | 2.73 | 0.71 | 0.71 | 0.59 | 1.05 |
%UHSLA | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Replicate 1&2 | −1.8 | −5.8 | −14.7 | −19.5 | −19.7 | −16.7 | −7.9 | −4.2 | −3.6 | −2.3 | |
4.6 | 9.5 | 13.0 | 19.9 | 21.6 | 15.0 | 7.9 | 9.4 | 7.0 | 13.4 | ||
Replicate 1 | −2.6 | −3.2 | −10.9 | −17.3 | −15.3 | −11.7 | −2.1 | 4.2 | 4.7 | 3.6 | |
7.9 | 12.2 | 12.8 | 26.1 | 22.2 | 14.0 | 10.5 | 14.6 | 10.8 | 20.3 | ||
Replicate 2 | −1.8 | −8.4 | −18.6 | −21.8 | −24.1 | −21.6 | −13.6 | −12.6 | −11.9 | −8.2 | |
2.1 | 6.8 | 13.1 | 13.6 | 21.0 | 16.1 | 5.2 | 4.2 | 3.3 | 6.5 |
3.5. Tensile Properties
Data Included | %UHSLA | UTS (MPa) | YS (MPa) | %El | Modulus of Toughness (J/m3) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
All Data | 40 | 784.8 ± 86.3 * | 640.2 ± 123.3 * | 25.2 ± 2.3 | 1.78 × 108 ± 0.24 × 108 |
50 | 939.5 ± 76.2 * | 765.9 ± 71.2 * | 24.8 ± 1.8 | 2.10 × 108 ± 0.30 × 108 | |
70 | 1296.3 ± 44.2 * | 997.3 ± 21.6 * | 21.7 ± 2.3 | 2.54 × 108 ± 0.36 × 108 | |
90 | 1547.6 ± 86.9 * | 1202.2 ± 10.6 * | 18.4 ± 1.5 | 2.58 × 108 ± 0.29 × 108 | |
100 | 1632.3 ± 120.3 * | 1288.1 ± 24.2 * | 16.9 ± 1.4 | 2.52 × 108 ± 0.32 × 108 | |
Interlayer Delay 1 s | 40 | 703.3 ± 14.1 | 523.5 ± 26.6 | 25.3 ± 3.1 | 1.62 × 108 ± 0.21 × 108 |
50 | 868.3 ± 10.1 | 700.0 ± 20.1 | 24.1 ± 1.5 | 1.86 × 108 ± 0.11 × 108 | |
70 | 1254.6 ± 5.5 | 1016.4 ± 5.6 | 19.8 ± 1.2 | 2.22 × 108 ± 0.14 × 108 | |
90 | 1458.8 ± 12.6 | 1200.3 ± 11.3 | 17.8 ± 1.0 | 2.36 × 108 ± 0.13 × 108 | |
100 | 1507.0 ± 7.8 | 1264.2 ± 7.9 | 16.3 ± 0.4 | 2.26 × 108 ± 0.54 × 108 | |
Interlayer Delay 11 s | 40 | 866.3 ± 20.8 | 756.9 ± 21.7 | 25.0 ± 1.4 | 1.95 × 108 ± 0.12 × 108 |
50 | 1010.6 ± 23.0 | 831.7 ± 18.4 | 25.5 ± 2.0 | 2.33 × 108 ± 0.22 × 108 | |
70 | 1338.0 ± 11.7 | 978.3 ± 11.3 | 23.6 ± 1.5 | 2.85 × 108 ± 0.18 × 108 | |
90 | 1623.7 ± 18.2 | 1203.9 ± 10.5 | 18.9 ± 1.7 | 2.77 × 108 ± 0.24 × 108 | |
100 | 1736.7 ± 10.4 | 1308.0 ± 8.4 | 17.4 ± 1.8 | 2.73 × 108 ± 0.28 × 108 |
3.6. Tensile Property Sensitivity
%UHSLA | UTS- R2 | YS- R2 | %El- R2 | UTS- | YS- | %El- | UTS- | YS- | %El- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
40 | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.01 | 9.08 | 9.32 | 0.10 | 81.49 | 116.70 | −0.16 |
50 | 0.95 | 0.93 | 0.17 | 7.13 | 6.48 | 0.74 | 71.15 | 65.88 | 0.72 |
70 | 0.96 | 0.84 | 0.69 | 9.06 | 5.43 | 3.62 | 41.71 | −19.09 | 1.88 |
90 | 0.97 | 0.03 | 0.14 | 8.95 | 0.24 | 0.67 | 82.44 | 1.76 | 0.53 |
100 | 1.00 | 0.90 | 0.15 | 10.79 | 5.00 | 0.61 | 114.83 | 21.90 | 0.52 |
3.7. Microstructure Analysis: Hardness Experiments
3.8. Microstructure Analysis: Tensile Experiments
3.9. Identifying an Optimal Composition
4. Conclusions
- The hardness, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and yield strength (YS) of alloys containing 40–50% UHSLA were highly sensitive to process variations, corresponding to cooling rate-driven phase fluctuations between lath martensite and upper bainite.
- Alloys with low UHSLA contents (10–20%) transformed primarily to ferrite; those with high contents (70–100%) transformed to martensite, intermixed with auto-tempered martensite at lower cooling rates. The avoidance of martensite/bainite fluctuations appears to be a key factor leading to improved robustness.
- At 70% UHSLA, the hardness, UTS, and YS were relatively robust, as the alloy content was just high enough to ensure transformation to martensite or auto-tempered martensite. This alloy maintained a relatively high hardness and strength while exhibiting superior ductility to UHSLA without sacrificing tensile toughness.
- Above 70% UHSLA, the YS sensitivity remained low. In contrast, the UTS sensitivity increased, possibly suggesting a strong response of the work hardening capability to auto-tempering at higher alloy contents.
- While hardness analysis captures certain microstructural sensitivities, it may not reveal other sensitivities relevant to the tensile properties, such as factors influencing the work hardening capability. This is an important consideration when designing experiments to evaluate the robustness of alloys.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Correction Statement
References
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Kelley, J.; Newkirk, J.W.; Bartlett, L.N.; Isanaka, S.P.; Sparks, T.; Alipour, S.; Liou, F. Development of Robust Steel Alloys for Laser-Directed Energy Deposition via Analysis of Mechanical Property Sensitivities. Micromachines 2024, 15, 1180. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15101180
Kelley J, Newkirk JW, Bartlett LN, Isanaka SP, Sparks T, Alipour S, Liou F. Development of Robust Steel Alloys for Laser-Directed Energy Deposition via Analysis of Mechanical Property Sensitivities. Micromachines. 2024; 15(10):1180. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15101180
Chicago/Turabian StyleKelley, Jonathan, Joseph W. Newkirk, Laura N. Bartlett, Sriram Praneeth Isanaka, Todd Sparks, Saeid Alipour, and Frank Liou. 2024. "Development of Robust Steel Alloys for Laser-Directed Energy Deposition via Analysis of Mechanical Property Sensitivities" Micromachines 15, no. 10: 1180. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15101180
APA StyleKelley, J., Newkirk, J. W., Bartlett, L. N., Isanaka, S. P., Sparks, T., Alipour, S., & Liou, F. (2024). Development of Robust Steel Alloys for Laser-Directed Energy Deposition via Analysis of Mechanical Property Sensitivities. Micromachines, 15(10), 1180. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15101180