Research Progress of Pt-Based Catalysts toward Cathodic Oxygen Reduction Reactions for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Pt-Based Alloy Catalysts
3. Pt-Based Intermetallic Catalysts
- During synthesis and preparation, there may be some problems in the high-temperature annealing process, such as the aggregation of nanoparticles, the difficulty in forming a core–shell structure for some transition metals (such as Fe), and trouble in controlling the shape of intermetallic compound nanocrystals during synthesis. Researchers need to explore the formation mechanism of nanocrystals from the perspective of reaction kinetics and thermodynamics, understand the relationship between surface structure and catalytic performance at the atomic scale, and develop more low-temperature annealing methods on this basis. In the future, adding low-melting metals may be the direction for structural ordering under milder conditions.
- Theoretical calculations can be used to further guide the determination of the morphology/structure of ordered intermetallic compounds and the study of the kinetic process of the catalyst surface.
- The reaction process can be monitored using advanced characterization techniques, such as in situ infrared spectroscopy (FTIRS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and synchrotron radiation (XAFS) in in situ characterization techniques so as to further and more thoroughly study the reaction mechanism and deactivation mechanism.
4. Pt-Based High-Entropy Alloy Catalysts
- The reaction mechanism and pathway of the catalyst have not been fully clarified; for example, the unique reaction mechanism of the cocktail effect and the connection between lattice distortion and activation barrier, etc., still need to be further studied. In addition, the reaction mechanism of a high-entropy alloy catalyst from a disordered to ordered structure has still not been explored. Current research often uses simple models to illustrate complex processes. Therefore, more advanced in situ/operational characterization methods, such as operando TEM and SEM techniques, are needed to understand the structure–activity relationship of HEA and to guide the design of catalysts [148,168].
- The rational design of high-entropy alloy catalysts is also a challenge. The active centers of Pt-based HEAs are composed of Pt and its surrounding atoms, but there are many possible atomic arrangements of Pt atoms. It is challenging to identify the active center of HEAs and calculate the ideal composition ratio due to the various coordination environment that each Pt atom has. Therefore, the design and preparation of a catalyst structure and composition require more advanced computer technology to assist in judging the reaction center and predicting the results. In the future, with the development of advanced methods such as machine learning and statistical analysis, it is expected that we can accurately and efficiently predict and design the composition and performance of high-entropy alloy catalysts [141,169,170].
- Common synthesis methods and routes have low efficiency. However, it is well known that the development of efficient synthesis methods and routes to improve the yield is the key to HEA catalysts from experimental research to large-scale industrial production. At present, the synthesis reaction of an HEA catalyst usually needs to be carried out under a high temperature, high pressure, and inert gas, which requires high experimental equipment and conditions. For example, the fast-moving bed pyrolysis method requires rapid heating and cooling in a specific instrument to uniformly disperse the catalyst at high temperatures with very small nanoparticles. Although electrochemical deposition synthesis can solve this problem well and control the reaction by adjusting the applied voltage at room temperature, the obtained materials are unevenly distributed and cannot be mass-produced. Therefore, efficient and controllable multi-component catalyst synthesis methods still need to be developed [171,172].
5. Coupled Low-Pt and PGM-Free Catalysts
- The complex structure makes it difficult to detect the number of active sites accurately and quantitatively. At present, there is a deviation in the number of active sites of PGM-free catalysts detected by Mössbauer spectroscopy, CO chemisorption, and other methods. Fourier transform alternating current voltammetry was reported by Rifael Z et al. [205]; it may be a promising method for accurately measuring the density of PGM-free active sites in the future. Additionally, the number of active sites can be determined by advanced artificial intelligence and computers to guide catalyst design [206,207,208,209].
- The coupling mechanism of coupled low-Pt and PGM-free catalysts has not been fully elucidated, especially the mechanism conducive to the selectivity of the four-electron ORR pathway. At present, these properties are mostly verified from experiments, and a comprehensive understanding of the coupling effect still needs to be obtained. In the future, advanced in situ characterization and operational characterization techniques can be used to accurately grasp the electrochemical reaction process of coupled low-Pt and PGM-free catalysts and construct the relationship between performance and structure [62,206].
6. Single-Atom Pt Catalysts
- Increasing the load of Pt while ensuring the uniform dispersion of atoms. In this regard, the development of techniques such as the atomic layer deposition, the photochemical reduction, and the wet chemical method can stabilize the defect sites of loaded metal atoms. Therefore, increasing the number of anchoring sites and the density of active sites through defect engineering is the key to single-atom Pt catalyst synthesis [226,227]. Recent studies have shown that Pt nanostructures rich in GB sites synthesized by GB engineering provide the best coordination environment for the reaction and can increase the residence time of oxygen, which is an effective strategy to improve the catalytic performance of ORR catalysts in the future. However, the grain boundary will accelerate the oxidation of Pt and reduce the stability of the catalyst, so further research is needed [41].
7. Conclusions and Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Chen, Y.; Huang, Z.; Yu, J.; Wang, H.; Qin, Y.; Xing, L.; Du, L. Research Progress of Pt-Based Catalysts toward Cathodic Oxygen Reduction Reactions for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. Catalysts 2024, 14, 569. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14090569
Chen Y, Huang Z, Yu J, Wang H, Qin Y, Xing L, Du L. Research Progress of Pt-Based Catalysts toward Cathodic Oxygen Reduction Reactions for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. Catalysts. 2024; 14(9):569. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14090569
Chicago/Turabian StyleChen, Yue, Zhiyin Huang, Jiefen Yu, Haiyi Wang, Yukuan Qin, Lixin Xing, and Lei Du. 2024. "Research Progress of Pt-Based Catalysts toward Cathodic Oxygen Reduction Reactions for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells" Catalysts 14, no. 9: 569. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14090569