Efficient and Sustainable Biodiesel Production via Transesterification: Catalysts and Operating Conditions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biodiesel Production Feedstock
3. Types of Catalysts
3.1. Biocatalysts
3.1.1. Homogeneous Catalysts Utilized in Biodiesel Production
3.1.2. Homogeneous Base Catalysts
3.1.3. Homogeneous Acid Catalysts
3.2. Heterogeneous Catalysts Used for Biodiesel Production
3.2.1. Heterogeneous Base Catalysts
3.2.2. Heterogeneous Acid-Catalysts
4. Process Conditions/Parameters for Biodiesel Production
4.1. Effect of Methanol to Oil Molar Ratio (MRMO)
4.2. Effect of Temperature
4.3. Effect of Reaction Time
4.4. Effect of Catalyst Loading
5. Conclusions and Future Outlook
- Development of economically viable heterogeneous catalysts with both high activity and selectivity suitable for use in the industry;
- Investigating novel catalyst supports characterized by a selective surface area and an interconnected system of suitable pore sizes;
- Further investigation into biomass or waste materials as catalyst sources in order to develop new catalysts, reduce the cost of biodiesel and enhance the sustainability of commercially available solid catalysts;
- Improving hydrotalcite-based catalyst preparation routes and treatment steps in order to facilitate their transition from laboratory-scale applications to industrial-scale utilization;
- Continuing research and exploration of industrial enzymatic biodiesel production as a prospective and sustainable option for the future;
- Careful design of one-step catalyst preparation routes, avoiding complex multistep grafting methods, to enhance the interaction between acid sites and the catalyst framework structure, thus preventing the leakage of active phases;
- Research focused on investigating the phase behavior of mixtures and enhancing product purification processes;
- The technical viability of the integrated biodiesel–glycerol processing plant should be reevaluated by conducting a techno-economic analysis using real-world experimental and pilot-scale data.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
°C | Degree Celsius |
eV | Electronvolt |
GJ | Gigajoule |
toe | Ton of oil equivalent |
BET | Brunauer–Emmett–Teller |
FAME | Fatty acid methyl ester |
FFAs | Free fatty acids |
HPAs | Heteropolyacids |
MOF | Metal–organic framework |
MREO | Molar ratio of ethanol to oil |
MRMO | Molar ratio of methanol to oil |
RBD | Refined, bleached, and deodorized |
WCO | Waste cooking oil |
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Catalyst | Feedstock | Reaction Parameters (Time, Temperature, Catalyst Amount, and Alcohol to Oil Molar Ratio) | Performance | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Novozym 435 lipase | Residual fish oil | 8 h, 35 °C, 50 wt.%, 36:1 | Yield = 82.91% | [47] |
Pseudomonas cepacian | Jatropha curcas | 8 h, 50 °C, 4:1 | Yield = 98% | [36] |
Pancreatic lipase | Waste cooking oil | 4 h, 60 °C, 1.5 wt.%, 3:1 | Conversion = 88% | [46] |
Burkholderia cepacia | Jatropha curcas | 24 h, 35 °C, 5.25 g, 10:1 | Yield = 100% | [37] |
Rice bran lipase | Rice bran oil | 288 h, 40 °C, 3 wt.%, 6:1 | Yield = 83.4% | [48] |
Lipozyme Thermomyces lanuginose IM | Corn oil | 12 h, 35 °C, 2.8 wt.%, 6:1 | Yield = 98.95% | [49] |
Rhizopus oryzae lipase | Calophyllum inophyllum | 72 h, 35 °C, 20 wt.%, 12:1 | Yield = 92% | [50] |
Rhizopus oryzae lipase | Pistacia chinensis seed oil | 60 h, 37 °C, 7 wt.% 5:1 | Yield = 94% | [51] |
Pig pancreatic lipase | Sunflower oil | 19 h, 60 °C, 0.1 wt.%, 2:1 | Yield = 57.2% | [52] |
Rhizomucor miehei lipase | Triolein | 96 h, 40 °C, 5 wt.%, 3:1 | Yield = 77% | [53] |
Cryptococcus spp. S-2 | Rice bran oil | 120 h, 30 °C, 4:1 | Yield = 80.2% | [54] |
Pseudomonas lipase | Sunflower oil | 5 h, 45 °C, 10:1 | Yield = 80% | [55] |
Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus stearothermophilus | Coffee oil | 12 h, 55 °C, 14 wt.%, 3:1 | Conversion = 97.66% | [56] |
Catalyst | Feedstock | Reaction Parameters (Time, Temperature, Catalyst Amount, and Alcohol-to-Oil Molar Ratio) | Performance | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
KOH | Croton megalocarpus oil | 1 h, 60 °C, 1.0 wt.%, 30:1 | Conversion = 88% | [65] |
Potassium methoxide | Elaeagnus Angustifolia seed oil | 1 h, 60 °C, 1 wt.%, 9:1 | Yield = 95% | [68] |
NaOH | Rice bran oil | 2 h, 60 °C, 0.9 wt.%, 6:1 | Yield = 72.8% | [69] |
KOH | Waste scum | 30 min, 75 °C, 1.2 wt.%, 6:1. | Yield = 96.7% | [66] |
H2SO4 | Soybean oil | 69 h, 65 °C, 1 wt.%, 30:1 | Conversion = >90% | [76] |
H2SO4 | Crude palm oil | 9 h, 95 °C, 5 wt.%, 40:1 | Yield = 97% | [78] |
H2SO4 | Used cooking oil | 10 h, 95 °C, 4 wt.%, 20:1 | Conversion = 90% | [79] |
Catalyst | Feedstock | Reaction Parameters (Reaction Time, Temperature, Catalyst Amount, and Alcohol to Oil Molar Ratio) | Performance | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
SrO | Soyabean oil | 30 min, 65 °C, 3 wt.%, 12:1 | Yield = 95% | [90] |
Na/NaOH/γAl2O3 | Soyabean oil | 2 h, 60 °C, 1 wt.%, 9:1 | Yield = 94% | [91] |
CaO | Soyabean oil | 3 h, 65 °C, 8 wt.%, 12:1 | Yield = 95% | [87] |
CaO | Sunflower oil | 90 min, 60 °C, 1 wt.%, 13:1 | Yield = 94% | [92] |
CaO | Sunflower oil | 2 h, 60 °C, 1 wt.%, 6:1 | Yield = 98% | [93] |
Snail shell | Waste cooking oil | 7 h, 60 °C, 2 wt.%, 8.45:1 | Yield = 87.28% | [101] |
BaO | Palm oil | 1 h, 50 °C, 3 wt.%, 9:1 | Yield = 95.2% | [96] |
SrO | Palm oil | 1 h, 50 °C, 3 wt.%, 9:1 | Yield = 95.2% | [96] |
CaO | Palm oil | 1 h, 50 °C, 3 wt.%, 12:1 | Yield = 77.3% | [96] |
BaO | Palm oil | 60 min, 50 °C, 3 wt.%, 9:1 | Yield = 95.17% | [97] |
SrO | Palm oil | 60 min, 50 °C, 3 wt.%, 9:1 | Yield = >94% | [97] |
Waste snail shells | Soyabean oil | 7 h, 50 °C, 3 wt.%, 6:1 | Yield = 98% | [98] |
Waste eggshells (CaO) | Palm olein oil | 2 h, 60 °C, 10.0 wt.%, 12:1 | Yield = >90% | [99] |
KOH/Al2O3 | Waste cooking oil | 2 h, 70 °C, 15 wt.%, 9:1 | Yield = 96.8% | [110] |
Li/CaO | Jatropha oil karanja oil | 2 h, 65 °C, 5 wt.%, 12:1 1 h, 65 °C, 5 wt.%, 12:1 | Conversion = >99 Conversion = >99 | [94] |
Ostrich eggshells | Used cooking oil | 2 h, 65 °C, 1.5 wt.%, 12:1 | Yield = 96% | [104] |
Chicken-eggshells | Used cooking oil | 2 h, 65 °C, 1.5 wt.%, 12:1 | Yield = 94% | [104] |
NaX Zeolite/KOH | Soyabean oil | 8 h, 65 °C, 3 wt.%, 10:1 | Yield = 85.6% | [102] |
Na2PEG (300) | Soyabean oil | 5 h, 70 °C, 6 wt.%, 30:1 | Conversion = 99% | [103] |
KF/Zn(Al)O | Soyabean | 3 h, 65 °C, 3 wt.%, 6:1 | Yield = 95% | [105] |
Mg-Al hydrotalcite | Sunflower oil | 24 h, 60 °C, 2 wt.%, 48:1 | Yield = 92% | [106] |
K-loaded Mg-Al hydrotalcite | Palm oil | 7 h, 100 °C, 7 wt.%, 30:1 | Yield = 86.6% | [107] |
Na-Mg-Al hydrotalcite (HT-Na) | Waste cooking oil | 8 h, 60 °C, 7 wt.%, 9:1 | Yield = 67% | [108] |
Zn3La1(Lanthanum-modified ZnO) | Waste cooking oil | 3 h, 200 °C, 3 wt.%, 26:1 | Yield = 93.7% | [109] |
CaO (Clamshell) | Waste frying oil | 3 h, 60 °C, 3 wt.%, 6.03:1 | Yield = >89 | [100] |
CaO-ZrO2 | Waste cooking oil | 2 h, 65 °C, 10 wt.%, 30:1 | Yield = 92.1% | [111] |
Fe3O4@HKUST-ABIL | Soybean oil | 3 h, 65 °C, 1.2 wt.%, 30:1 | Yield = 92.30% | [112] |
ZIF-90-Gua | Soybean oil | 6 h, 65 °C, 1 wt.%, 15:1 | Yield = 95.40% | [113] |
NaOH/magnetized ZIF-8 | Vegetable oil | 1 h, 65 °C, 3 wt.%, 21:1 | Yield = 99.80% | [114] |
KNa/ZIF-8 | Soybean oil | 3.5 h, 100 °C, 0.012 wt.%, 10:1 | Yield = 98% | [115] |
SrO-MIL-100(Fe) | Palm oil | 0.5 h, 65 °C, 8 wt.%, 12:1 | Yield= 96.19% | [116] |
MgO@Zn-MOF | Soybean oil | 2 h, 210 °C, 1 wt.%, 3:1 | Yield = 73.30%84 | [117] |
KNa/ZIF-8@GO | Soybean oil | 8 h, 100 °C, 8 wt.%, 18:1 | Yield = 98% | [118] |
Cu- and Ca-based MOF | Waste cooking oil | 0.5 h, 60 °C, 1 wt.%, 20:1 | Yield = 84.5% | [119] |
Catalyst | Feedstock | Reaction Parameters (Reaction Time, Temperature, Catalyst Amount, and MRMO) | Performance | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
SO42−/ZrO2 | Palm kernel oil Coconut oil | 4 h, 200 °C, 1 wt.%, 6:1 | Yield = 90.3% Yield = 86.3% | [129] |
ZrO2 loaded on different supports (TiO2, SiO2, Fe2O3, and Al2O3) | Waste cooking oil | 3 h, 120 °C, 0.1 wt.%, 120:1 | Conversion = 48.6% | [130] |
WO3/ZrO2 | Waste vegetable oil | 1 h, 75 °C, 4 wt.%, 9:1 | Conversion = 93% | [131] |
SO42−/ZrO2-MCM-41 | Sunflower oil | 5 h, 200 °C, 14.6 wt.%, 14:1 | Yield = 91.5% | [135] |
Sulfated Zr-KIT-6 | Oleic acid | 6 h, 120 °C, 4 wt.%, 20:1 | Conversion = 96% | [136] |
WO3/ZrO2 | S. Obliquus lipids | 3 h, 100 °C, 15 wt.%, 12:1 | Conversion = 94.58% | [139] |
Zr2O-supported bamboo leaf ash (Zr2O/BLA) | Soybean oil | 30 min, 50 °C, 12 wt.%, 15:1 | Yield = 89.99% | [137] |
Zirconium-based carbonaceous | Oleic acid | 2 h, 90 °C, 5 wt.%, 20:1 | Yield = 99.1% | [138] |
ZrO2/La2O3 | Sunflower oil | 5 h, 200 °C, 5 wt.%, 30:1 | Yield = 84.9% | [140] |
Na/ZnO-loaded SBA-15 | Cotton seed oil | 4 h, 65 °C, 12 wt.%, 24:1 | Yield = 98% | [141] |
Manganese-doped ZnO | Mahua oil | 50 min, 50 °C, 8 wt.%, 7:1 | Yield = 97% | [142] |
Nickel-doped ZnO | Castor oil | 1 h, 55 °C, 11 wt.%, 8:1 | Yield = 95.20% | [143] |
Cobalt-doped ZnO | Mesua ferrea oil | 3 h, 60 °C, 2.5 wt.%, 9:1 | Conversion = 98.03% | [144] |
SO3H-ZnAl4O3 | Palm fatty acid | 20 min, 60 °C, 1.5 wt.%, 9:1 | Yield = 94.59% | [145] |
Lithium/Zinc composite-supported waste chicken bone | Waste canola oil | 3.5 h, 60 °C, 4.0 wt.%, 18:1 | Conversion = 98% | [146] |
SO42−/SnO2-SiO2 | Jatropha curcas | 2 h, 180 °C, 3 wt.%, 15:1 | Yield = 97% | [150] |
SO42−/TiO2 | Cottonseed oil | 8 h, 230 °C, 2 wt.%, 12:1 | Yield = >90% | [152] |
SO42−/TiO2–SiO2 | Cottonseed oil | 6 h, 200 °C, 3 wt.%, 9:1 | Conversion = 92% | [153] |
TiO2/PrSO3H | Waste cooking oil | 9 h, 60 °C, 2.5 wt.%, 15:1 | Yield = 98.3% | [154] |
20-W/TiO2/SiO2 | Waste Cottonseed oil | 4 h, 65 °C, 5 wt.%, 30:1 | Yield = 98% | [155] |
Li2TiO3 | Soybean oil | 2 h, 65 °C, 6 wt.%, 24:1 | Conversion = 98.5% | [156] |
Li/NaY zeolite | Castor oil | 2 h, 75 °C, 3 wt.%, 18:1 | Yield = 98.6% | [159] |
Zeolite Y | Oleic acid | 1 h, 70 °C, 5 wt.%, 6:1 | Conversion = 85% | [160] |
ZrO2/ZSM-5(0.2 M) | Soybean oil | 4 h, 200 °C, 1 wt.%, 16:1 | Conversion = 97.8% | [161] |
SO42−/ZnO-β-zeolite | Waste cooking oil | 8 h, 200 °C, 3 wt.%, 15:1 | Conversion = 96.9% | [162] |
CaO-zeolite/Fe3O4 | Used cooking oil | 5 h, 55 °C, 4 wt.%, 5:1 | Yield = 96.91% | [167] |
Amberlyst-15 | Babassu coconut oil | 8 h, 60 °C, 300:1 | Conversion = 74% | [177] |
SO3-H-bearing carbon material | Oleic acid | 4 h, 95 °C, 0.307 g | Yield = 99.9% | [178] |
Sulfonated vegetable oil asphalt | Waste cooking oil | 4.5 h, 220 °C, 0.2 wt.%, 16.8:1 | Conversion = 94.8% | [181] |
Sulfonated D-glucose derived sugar | Palmitic acid and oleic acid | 5 h, 80 °C, 5 wt.%, 10:1 | Yield = 95% | [179] |
Sulfonated carbon-based catalyst derived from starch | Waste cooking oil | 8 h, 80 °C, 10 wt.%, 30:1 | Yield = 92% | [180] |
H3PW12O40·6H2O (PW12) | Waste cooking oil | 14 h, 65 °C, 4 wt.%, 70:1 | Conversion = 87% | [184] |
Zr0.7H0.2PW12O40 | Waste cooking oil | 8 h, 65 °C, 2.1 wt.%, 20:1 | Conversion = 98.8% | [185] |
H3PW12O40/Nb2O5 | Used cooking oil | 20 h, 200 °C, 3 wt.%, 18:1 | Yield = 92% | [186] |
H3PW12O40 loaded on ZrO2 | Canola oil | 10 h, 200 °C, 3 wt.%, 9:1 | Yield = 90% | [188] |
H3PW12O40/ACF | Palmitic acid | 6 h, 40 °C, 1.1 wt.%, 97:1 | Conversion = 89% | [189] |
H3PW12O40-supported MCM-41 | Lauric acid | 3 h, 90 °C. 2:1 | Yield = 95% | [187] |
NiHSiW/UiO-66 | Oleic acid | 3 h, 160 °C, 6 wt.%, 18:1 | Conversion = 86.7% | [192] |
Fe-BTC frameworks | Oleic acid | 3 h, 160 °C, 10 wt.%, 16:1 | Conversion = 72.3% | [193] |
MnO2@Mn(btc) | Oleic acid | 5 h, 200 °C, 5 wt.%, 30:1 | Conversion = 98% | [195] |
Blend-MOF-5 | Waste cooking oil | 3 h, 150 °C, 5 wt.%, 20:1 | Yield = 70% | [197] |
FDCA/SA-Hf | Oleic acid | 9.5 h, 49 °C, 5 wt.%, 19:1 | Yield = 98.6% | [198] |
ZIF-like grafted H6P2W18O62 | Free fatty acids | 4 h, 80 °C, 3 wt.%, 60:1 | Conversion = 92% | [200] |
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Yusuf, B.O.; Oladepo, S.A.; Ganiyu, S.A. Efficient and Sustainable Biodiesel Production via Transesterification: Catalysts and Operating Conditions. Catalysts 2024, 14, 581. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14090581
Yusuf BO, Oladepo SA, Ganiyu SA. Efficient and Sustainable Biodiesel Production via Transesterification: Catalysts and Operating Conditions. Catalysts. 2024; 14(9):581. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14090581
Chicago/Turabian StyleYusuf, Basiru O., Sulayman A. Oladepo, and Saheed A. Ganiyu. 2024. "Efficient and Sustainable Biodiesel Production via Transesterification: Catalysts and Operating Conditions" Catalysts 14, no. 9: 581. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14090581