Biochars and Their Use as Transesterification Catalysts for Biodiesel Production: A Short Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biodiesel
3. Biochar
3.1. Activation of Biochars through Chemical Treatment
3.2. Biodiesel Formation through Transesterification Reaction Using Different Biochars as Catalysts
3.2.1. Acid Biochars Catalysts
3.2.2. Basic Biochars Catalysts
3.2.3. Pseudo Catalytic Transesterification
4. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Raw Material | Characteristics | Reaction Temp. °C | % Conversion or % Yield | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SSA (m2/g) | %S | –SO3H mmol/g | ||||
Bamboo | 2.7 | 6 | 65 | 98.4 | [35] | |
Cassava peel, irul sawdust and coconut shell | 2 | 85 | 96.8–85.2 | [36] | ||
Char from a commercial small-scale gasification plant | 337–354 | 2.37 | 96 | [37] | ||
Coconut meal residue | 1.3–4 | 6–14 | BP | 92.7 | [38] | |
Coconut shell | 24.2 | 0.5 | 60 | 88 | [39] | |
Coconut shell char | 244 | 4.55 | 60 | 80% | [40] | |
Coffee | 992–1218 | 0.45–0.72 | 60 | 71.5 | [41] | |
Corn | 7.8 | 60 | 92 | [42] | ||
d-glucose | 4.13 | 11.9 | 80 | >95 | [43] | |
d-glucose | 4−10.67 | 0.12–4.23 | 93 | [44] | ||
d-glucose | 0.31 | 2.7 | 60 | 90 | [45] | |
d-glucose or C. inophyllum seed cake | 0.2–3.4 | 2.5 | 130–200 | 99 | [46] | |
Douglas fir | 3.51 | 2 | 65 | 99 | [47] | |
Hardwood | 2.74–14.38 | 1.7–2.1 | 65 | 77–89 | [48] | |
Jatropha curcas seed cake | 1.62−2.35 | 23 | 45–70 | 99.1 | [49] | |
karanja seed shells | 13–16 | 7.5–16 | 120 | 95.6 | [50] | |
Microalgae residue | 1 | 80 | 98 | [51] | ||
Mixture of wood waste, white wood bark, and shavings | 2−1411 | 1.2–2.69 | 65 | 7.6–18.9 | [52] | |
Oat hull. | 5−49.3 | 3–7.5 | 100–140 | 27–72 | [53] | |
Oil cake waste | 8−777 | 1.2–2.4 | 0.16–2.21 | 65 | 7 | [54] |
Oilseed cake | ≅0 | 3–3.3 | 60 | 94 | [55] | |
Palm seed cake | 483 | 3.16 | 55–75 | 98 | [56] | |
Palm trunk and bagasse | 3−4.5 | 2.7–2.98 | 0.94–1.48 | 65 | 83.2 | [57] |
Partially carbonized de-oiled canola meal | <10 | 0.2–4.4 | 65 | 93.8 | [58] | |
Peanut hulls, pine logging residues, and wood chips | 0–242 | 0.1–2.82 | 0–0.86 | 55–60 | 90–100 | [59] |
Peanut shell | 4–12 | 0–3.25 | 120 | 90.2 | [60] | |
Rice husk | 4 | 5.7 | 70–110 | 98.2 | [61] | |
Rice husk | 0.43–2.43 | 66 | 87 | [62] | ||
Rice husk | 4 | 2.25 | 70 | 96 | [63] | |
Sawdust | 2.35–33 | 0–6.62 | 85 | 95.6 | [64] | |
Spent coffee grounds | 60 | 15.6–21.5 | [65] | |||
Spent coffee grounds | 60 | 73.4 | [66] | |||
Vegetable oil asphalt | 7.48–41.27 | 2.21 | 180–260 | 89.93 | [67] | |
Woody biomass | 857–990 | 0.36 | 150 | 48.1 | [68] |
Raw Material | Active Phase | SSA (m2/g) | Reaction Tempe. (°C) | % Conversion or % Yield | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Meat and bone meal | K2CO3 | 45–430 | 65 | 98 | [73] |
Palm kernel shells | CaO | - | 45–65 | 99 | [74] |
Peat | K2CO3 | 14–25 | 65 | 98.6 | [75] |
Peat | 20–40% wt K2CO3 | 80–230 | 65 | 98 | [76] |
Rice husk | CaO | 20–342 | 65 | 98 | [77] |
Waste pomelo peel | 15–35% wt K2CO3 | 3–31 | 65 | 98 | [78] |
Raw Material | % Conversion or % Yield | Comment | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Maize residue | 95.4 | 380 °C and molar ratio of DMC to olive oil (36:1) | [81] |
Maize residue | 87 | 380 °C | [87] |
Maize residue | 90.9 | 300 °C | [88] |
Charcoal-activate aloumina silica | 95 | thermally induced transesterification | [32] |
Silica | 95 | 380 °C | [89] |
Silica | 96.1 | 380 °C | [90] |
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Vakros, J. Biochars and Their Use as Transesterification Catalysts for Biodiesel Production: A Short Review. Catalysts 2018, 8, 562. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal8110562
Vakros J. Biochars and Their Use as Transesterification Catalysts for Biodiesel Production: A Short Review. Catalysts. 2018; 8(11):562. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal8110562
Chicago/Turabian StyleVakros, John. 2018. "Biochars and Their Use as Transesterification Catalysts for Biodiesel Production: A Short Review" Catalysts 8, no. 11: 562. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal8110562