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Article

Ultrasound-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis of SrSnO3/g-C3N4 Heterojunction with Enhanced Photocatalytic Performance for Ciprofloxacin under Visible Light

by
Zhengru Zhu
1,
Haiwen Xia
1,
Junchao Jiang
1,*,
Songlin Han
1 and
Hong Li
2
1
School of Geography, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian 116029, China
2
Department of Basic, Dalian Naval Academy, Dalian 116018, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Crystals 2022, 12(8), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12081062
Submission received: 8 July 2022 / Revised: 27 July 2022 / Accepted: 27 July 2022 / Published: 29 July 2022
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In this work, an SrSnO3/g-C3N4 heterojunction with different dosage of SrSnO3 was fabricated by an ultrasound-assisted hydrothermal approach and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), UV-visible diffuse reflectance spectra (UV-Vis DRS), and photoluminescence spectroscopy (PL). Ciprofloxacin was adopted to assess the degradation performance, and the sample combined with 40% SrSnO3 eliminated 93% of ciprofloxacin (20 mg/L) within 3 h under visible light, which is 6.6 and 1.7 times greater than for SrSnO3 and g-C3N4, respectively. Furthermore, 85% CIP was extinguished after five cycles of a photocatalytic process. Ultimately, a possible photocatalytic mechanism was dissected.

1. Introduction

Antibiotics are widely used to treat diseases caused by bacterial infection. Since penicillin was first extracted in 1929, the antibiotic family has expanded to thousands of members, who have relieved the suffering of patients and saved endangered people countless times [1]. Nowadays, they play important roles in the medical industry, animal husbandry, aquaculture, and so on [2]. According to relevant reports, antibiotic consumption exceeds 100,000 tons per year [3]. However, large-scale production and use of antibiotics has brought about a potential crisis for the water environment. Antibiotics are stable enough that they cannot be decomposed after they enter bodies, they can be concealed in excreta of organisms, avoid sewage treatment systems, and end up in water environments, such as rivers, pools, groundwater, etc. [4]. As a result, all living organisms in the water spend their entire life cycle in antibiotic-contaminated environments. Bacteria are also accustomed to living with antibiotics. The evolution of drug resistance will make it harder for antibiotics to inhibit and kill bacteria, and already causes at least 700,000 deaths per year globally [5]. It is urgent that measures are taken to control antibiotic pollution in the water environment.
Fortunately, semiconductor photocatalysis technology was introduced in the 1970s, and was applied in the field of water pollution control in the subsequent research [6]. Compared with traditional antibiotic pollution disposal methods, semiconductor photocatalytic technology has the advantages of high efficiency, and is green and sustainable [7]. It converts antibiotics into H2O, CO2, and harmless small molecule compounds, making it a potential treatment for antibiotic contamination [8]. Nevertheless, it is accompanied by a series of drawbacks, and efforts need to be made to achieve the ideal target. Photocatalysts, such as TiO2 [9] and ZnO [10], can only be excited under ultraviolet light on account of its wide band gap [11]. In other words, it means high energy consumption and high cost. Sunlight, as an inexhaustible source of clean energy, is also not fully available to photocatalysts. Ultraviolet light makes up only 5% of sunlight, while visible light contains 46% [12]. These weaknesses of photocatalysts limit their practical application. How to maximum utilize the visible region of sunlight has become the direction of progress. Hence, a series of photocatalysts that can respond in the visible region have been proposed, for example, LaFeO3 [13], Bi2WO6 [14], and CeVO4 [15], etc.
Owing to its cost-effectiveness, good stability, safety, and visible light response capability, g-C3N4 became a new star among the numerous photocatalysts since it was first reported by Wang and his co-workers in 2009 [16,17]. Similarly, there are also factors limiting its wide application, for instance, specific surface area small, photoinduced short-lived electron–hole pairs [18]. Many strategies, such as crystal facet engineering, element doping, and heterojunction construction, were proposed to solve this problem [19]. Relevant pioneering research has demonstrated that the construction of g-C3N4 based heterojunction can improve these defects and enhance photocatalytic performance. Renukadevi et al. [20] integrated g-C3N4 with NiFe2O4 to eliminate methyl orange, and degradation reaches 97% within 100 min. However, pristine g-C3N4 and NiFe2O4 can only remove 23% and 34% of methyl orange in the same condition. Ghorai et.al. [21] fabricated the Z-scheme LaNiO3/g-C3N4 heterojunction photocatalyst, which decomposed 98.6% methylene blue in 180 min; this is 9.1 and 4.9 times higher in terms of MB degradation compared with pure LaNiO3 and g-C3N4. Zhang et al. [22] synthesized the S-scheme BiOBr/g-C3N4 heterojunction, and removed 99% RhB in 30 min. Comparing g-C3N4 and BiOBr, the degradation efficiency of heterojunction photocatalysts increased by 21.9% and 73.6%, respectively.
In recent years, stannate photocatalysts have risen to prominence, such as ZnSnO3 [7], Zn2SnO4 [23], and Bi2Sn2O7 [24]. These photocatalysts have also been used to modify photocatalysts; for example, ZnSnO3/rGO [25], Zn2SnO4/BiOBr [26], Bi2Sn2O7/Bi2WO6 [27], etc. SrSnO3, a type of ABO3 perovskite stannate, strutted its stuff in the domain of capacitive sensors and electronic components, and so on [28]. However, as far as we know, there are few reports about SrSnO3/g-C3N4 photocatalysts for photocatalytic degradation of antibiotics [29,30,31].
Therefore, a novel rod-sheet morphology of SrSnO3/g-C3N4 heterojunction was successfully prepared using an ultrasound-assisted hydrothermal method in this work. The as-prepared samples were characterized by XRD, FTIR, SEM, TEM, UV-Vis DRS, XPS, and PL to investigate the purity and characteristics of the samples. Ciprofloxacin (CIP), a common antibiotic contaminant in wastewater, was selected for the first time as the degradation target of the SrSnO3/g-C3N4 heterojunction to evaluate the degradation performance of the samples. The appropriate composite ratio to maximize the photocatalytic performance of SrSnO3/g-C3N4 heterojunction was determined, and the recyclability of the sample was also verified. Furthermore, a plausible photocatalytic degradation mechanism over the SrSnO3/g-C3N4 heterojunction photocatalyst is discussed.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

All reagents purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co (Shanghai, China) were analytical reagent grade without further purification.

2.2. Preparation of g-C3N4 Photocatalyst

Synthesis of pristine g-C3N4 was conducted via one-step calcination, as previous reported [32,33]. After placing 5 g melamine into covered ceramic crucibles, it was then heated at 550 °C in a muffle furnace for 4 h. After cooling and grinding, the faint yellow powder was named CN.

2.3. Preparation of SrSnO3 Photocatalyst

According to relative studies [34,35], the same ratio of SrCl4·5H2O and Sr(NO3)2 was placed in 30 mL deionized water, respectively. After 2 h of vigorous continuous stirring, the above solutions were blended and poured into a 100 mL stainless steel autoclave lined with polytetrafluoroethylene. Then, we heated the stainless steel autoclave in a vacuum drying oven and maintained at 180 °C for 12 h. After cooling to room temperature, the precursor was ground into a powder into covered ceramic crucibles, and heated at 750 °C in a muffle furnace for 2 h. The obtained SrSnO3 sample was labeled SSO.

2.4. Preparation of SrSnO3/g-C3N4 Heterojunction Photocatalysts

SrSnO3/g-C3N4 heterojunction (SSO/CN) were structured by a facile ultrasound-assisted hydrothermal approach [36,37,38]. Typically, appropriate amounts of SSO and CN powder were dispersed into 50 mL ethanol with ultrasonic vibration for 1 h. The cavitation effect generated by ultrasonic assistance can eliminate agglomeration particles of solid-phase SSO and CN powder and obtain smaller particle sizes. Furthermore, ultrasonic dispersion also makes the composite samples more homogeneous and reliable. Then, the resulting mixture was poured into a 100 mL stainless steel autoclave lined with polytetrafluoroethylene and placed in vacuum drying oven at 180 °C for 24 h to facilitate the formation of heterojunctions. The supernatant was removed after cooling to room temperature, and the yellowish sediment at the bottom was cleaned with DI water and ethanol several times, respectively, and then dried overnight. After grinding, SSO/CN samples with different composite ratios (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%) were obtained by the same way, which marked as 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, and 50SSO/CN, respectively.

2.5. Characterization

Equipped with Cu Kα radiation, Shimadzu XRD-6000 (Kyoto, Japan) was employed to collect the XRD patten. FTIR spectrum of the photocatalysts were recorded by a Bruker AXS TENSOR 27 FTIR spectrometer (Karlsruhe, Germany). To understand the surface morphological of samples, Hitachi SU8010 scanning microscopy (Tokyo, Japan) and JEOL JEM-2100 transmission electron microscopy (Tokyo, Japan) were adopted. XPS was analyzed on ESCALAB250 analysis system of Thermo VG (MA, USA). The UV-Vis spectra were characterized by a PerkinElmer Lambda 35 spectrophotometer (MA, USA). The PL spectra were manifested by Shimadzu RF-540 Fluorescence spectrophotometer (Kyoto, Japan).

2.6. Photocatalytic Activity and Stability Evaluation

Typically, 0.02 g photocatalyst sample was placed into 100 mL CIP solution at a concentration of 20 mg/L and a pH value of 7. To attain absorption–desorption equilibrium, the solution was continuously stirred for 30 min out of the light. Next, CIP as the target was respectively degraded by CN, SSO, 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, and 50SSO/CN to examine the photocatalytic performance of the photocatalyst samples under visible light. A 500 W xenon lamp with a UV cutoff filter (λ ≥ 420 nm) was used as the light source for the photocatalytic process. Then, we sampled 5 mL solution at 30 min intervals and centrifuged (5000 rpm, 3 min) the solutions to separate the photocatalysts. After removing the photocatalyst, the filtered CIP suspensions were measured using UV-vis spectroscopy, and we recorded the absorption value at maximum absorption wavelengths (λCIP = 280 nm) to calculate the concentration of CIP. Ultimately, the degradation percentage (DP) was calculated according to the initial CIP absorption value (C0) and residual CIP absorption value (Ct) using the following formula [39]:
DP = (C0 − Ct)/C0 × 100%,
The stability of the SSO/CN composite photocatalyst was investigated using the recycling tests. After a photocatalytic process was completed, the photocatalyst was separated from the solution and washed with DI water and ethanol, then dried at 80 °C overnight. The recollected photocatalyst was used again to degrade the fresh CIP solution, and this process was repeated five times.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. XRD Analysis

With the purpose of investigating the crystal structure, crystallinity degree, and purity of the samples, the XRD technique was employed; the patterns are shown in Figure 1. In the pattern of CN, an apparent peak located at 2θ = 27.6°, belonging to the (002) crystal face of interlayer stacking peak of aromatic, corresponding to the standard PDF card (JCPDS No. 87-1526) [40]. As for the SSO pattern, the peaks at 2θ = 22.1°, 31.3°, 44.9°, 55.7°, 65.4°, and 74.3°, were well matched with the (110), (200), (220), (312), (400), and (332) crystal planes of standard PDF card (JCPDS No. 77-1798), respectively [41]. Meanwhile, after combining CN with SSO, the patterns had both characteristics of CN and SSO. Furthermore, the peaks of CN (002) plane shifted to a higher angle, which indicated that the SSO/CN samples with different ratio were successfully fabricated [42]. In addition, the sharp peaks on the patterns represent high crystallinity, and there were no other miscellaneous peaks, indicating that the samples were pure [43,44].

3.2. FTIR Analysis

The FTIR spectra of SSO, CN, and SSO/CN are shown in Figure 2. For pristine SSO, it is clear that the absorptions appearing at 530 cm−1 and 640 cm−1 are ascribed to the stretching vibration of the Sn–O bond and the vibrations of SnO32− [45,46,47]. The peak at 811 cm−1 represents the triazine units (3-s) of CN [48]. The absorption peak at 860 cm−1 was induced by the N–H bonds of the deformation mode [49]. The absorptions at the wavenumber of 1100–1700 cm−1 were driven by the C=N and C–N stretching vibrations, respectively [50]. In addition, the weak absorption peaks at 3000–3700 cm−1 represent the N–H bond stretching vibration [51]. Clearly, the absorption spectra of the SSO/CN samples have the characteristics of both monomer photocatalysts. Based on the above analysis, it can be deduced that the SSO/CN heterojunction photocatalysts were successfully fabricated, corresponding to the XRD results.

3.3. XPS Analysis

To identify the surface chemical component of the SSO/CN sample, XPS was employed; the spectrogram of 40SSO/CN is shown in Figure 3. Therein, the XPS spectrum (Figure 3a) illustrates that the SSO/CN sample contains strontium, tin, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, in accord with the elements of as-prepared photocatalyst samples. Located at 133.5 eV and 134.9 eV in Figure 3b, double peaks were pertained to the Sr 3d5/2 state and Sr 3d3/2 state [52]. In Figure 3c, the Sn 3d5/2 and Sn 3d3/2 states situated at the binding energies of 486.7 and 495.2 eV, respectively [53]. A pair of peaks appeared in the O 1s pattern (Figure 3d) at 527.7 eV and 529.8 eV were related to the hydroxyl group [54]. In Figure 3e, the peaks at 285.1 eV and 289.4 eV were fitted to C–C coordination and sp2-hybridised carbon of CN [55]. In Figure 3f, the peaks of N 1s spectra distinguished at 398.7 eV, 399.4 eV, and 400.7 eV were assigned to the triazine rings (C–N=C), tertiary nitrogen (N–(C3)) and N–H groups, respectively [56]. These results confirm that the SSO/CN heterojunction photocatalysts were formed.

3.4. SEM and TEM Analysis

Displayed in Figure 4, the microscopic details of samples were obtained by SEM and TEM. It is easily observed that numerous irregular rod-shaped SSO molecules clustered together in Figure 4a, and the CN sheets superimposed each other in Figure 4b. Figure 4c displays the morphology of composite photocatalyst, highlighting the SSO rods grown on the surface of lamellar CN. A complex surface morphology formed by photocatalyst recombination can provide more active points for the photocatalytic process [57]. The TEM result is exhibited in Figure 4d, the SSO dispersed on the surface of CN, further confirmed that the SSO/CN heterojunction structures had become established between the SSO and CN monomers, supporting the results of XRD, FTIR, and XPS.

3.5. UV-Vis DRS Analysis

The light utilization capacities of obtained samples revealed by UV-Vis DRS, the absorption edges, and the band gaps of the samples, are illustrated in Figure 5. In Figure 5a,b, the absorption edges of SSO, CN, 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, and 50SSO/CN are located at about 357, 420, 457, 462, 482, 489, and 479 nm, respectively. Distinctly, SSO can only be excited under ultraviolet light, whereas CN can respond to visible light. With the integration of SSO, the optical absorption edge of SSO/CN exhibited dramatic redshift and was deep in the visible light region.
According to the Tauc/David–Mott model [58], the band gaps were calculated, and are exhibited in Figure 6; values for SSO and CN are 3.57 and 2.95 eV, respectively. After being coupled with SSO, the values of 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, and 50SSO/CN were reduced to 2.71, 2.68, 2.57, 2.53, and 2.58 eV. The increase in lattice defects caused by photocatalyst recombination reduces the band gap of all composite samples compared with SSO and CN monomers [59]. 40SSO/CN has the strongest light absorption capacity in the samples, and is sensitive to visible light. Hence, the proper proportion of the heterojunction structure is helpful to enhance the photoabsorption capacity of the photocatalyst.
Crystals 12 01062 g003 550
Figure 3. XPS survey pattern of 40SSO/CN (a); the high-resolution XPS spectra of Sr 3d (b), Sn 3d (c), O 1s (d), C 1s (e), and N 1s (f).
Figure 3. XPS survey pattern of 40SSO/CN (a); the high-resolution XPS spectra of Sr 3d (b), Sn 3d (c), O 1s (d), C 1s (e), and N 1s (f).
Crystals 12 01062 g003
Crystals 12 01062 g004 550
Figure 4. SEM patterns of SSO sample (a), CN sample (b), 40SSO/CN sample (c), and TEM pattern of 40SSO/CN sample (d).
Figure 4. SEM patterns of SSO sample (a), CN sample (b), 40SSO/CN sample (c), and TEM pattern of 40SSO/CN sample (d).
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Crystals 12 01062 g005 550
Figure 5. The UV-Vis patterns of CN, SSO, 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, 50SSO/CN (a); the high-resolution patterns (b).
Figure 5. The UV-Vis patterns of CN, SSO, 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, 50SSO/CN (a); the high-resolution patterns (b).
Crystals 12 01062 g005
Crystals 12 01062 g006 550
Figure 6. The DRS patterns of CN (a), SSO (b), 10SSO/CN (c), 20SSO/CN (d), 30SSO/CN (e), 40SSO/CN (f), 50SSO/CN (g).
Figure 6. The DRS patterns of CN (a), SSO (b), 10SSO/CN (c), 20SSO/CN (d), 30SSO/CN (e), 40SSO/CN (f), 50SSO/CN (g).
Crystals 12 01062 g006

3.6. PL Analysis

PL was employed to ensure the separation efficiency of photoexcited electrons and holes. Figure 7 presents the comparison of PL emission spectra of all samples excited at 300 nm [60]. Typically, the more intense the peaks, the more short-lived the photoexcited electron–hole pairs. Short-lived photoelectron–hole pairs mean that fewer active substances are produced, which limits the photodegradation efficiency. As the amount of SSO composition increased, the photoelectron–hole separation efficiency on the surface of photocatalyst increased dramatically. The 40SSO/CN sample has the longest lifetime of photocarriers, portending a powerful photocatalytic activity.

3.7. Photocatalyst Activity

The degradation rate of photocatalysts to pollutants is an essential index to evaluate its photocatalytic performance. In Figure 8a and Table 1, the CIP underwent almost no degradation without photocatalysts in suspension. With the participation of CN, SSO, 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, and 50SSO/CN, a total of 11%, 8%, 5%, 13%, 7%, 10%, and 7% of CIP was adsorbed after the adsorption–desorption equilibrium was achieved, and the degradation rate of CIP reached 52%, 14%, 62%, 86%, 81%, 93%, and 90% under visible light irradiation. Compared with pristine CN and SSO, 40SSO/CN exhibited a 1.7-fold and 6.6-fold higher degradation efficiency, respectively. Additionally, a comparison between SSO/CN and the photodegradation efficiencies of different g-C3N4-based heterojunctions is exhibited in Table 2.
Figure 8b illustrates the kinetic curves fitted with a first-order model [68]. The kinetic constants of SSO, CN, 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, and 50SSO/CN were 0.00053, 0.00366, 0.00483, 0.00877, 0.00801, 0.01281, and 0.01074 min−1, respectively. The samples of 40SSO/CN and 50SSO/CN had much higher reaction rates than the other photocatalysts of the same series.
Stability and recyclability of the photocatalyst are critical issues for long-term use in practical applications. Consequently, as revealed in Figure 9, 40SSO/CN underwent a five-repeat recycling degradation under visible light and recollected the photocatalyst by filtration in each cycle, the 40SSO/CN sample could still degrade 85% of the CIP in the five-repeat recycling test, indicating that the 40SSO/CN has robust stability and active photocatalytic performance.

3.8. Photocatalytic Reaction Mechanism

Figure 10 illustrated the mechanism for electron–hole separation and transport on the surface of SSO/CN under visible light irradiation. The valence band (VB) and conduction band (CB) potentials of SSO and CN were calculated using the following approach [69]:
EV− = X − Ee + 0.5Eg,
ECB − EVB − Eg,
where EVB is the VB potential, ECB is the CB potential, X is the electronegativity of the semiconductor (the value of X for CN and SSO is ca. 4.72 eV and ca. 5.537 eV [70,71]), and Ee represents the energy of free electrons on the hydrogen scale (about 4.50 eV). Therefore, the CNVB and CNCB were determined at 1.70 eV and −1.25 eV. The SSOVB and SSOCB were estimated at 2.82 eV and −0.75 eV.
In the photocatalytic process, the photogenerated electrons migrate from CNVB to CNCB on the surface of CN irradiated under visible light, leaving holes on the CNVB. The photoinduced electron–hole pairs could be separated in this way; however, SSO cannot be excited by visible light for its large band gap, nor does this process exist [72]. Next, the CNCB (−1.25 eV) was more negative than that of SSOCB (−0.75 eV), the photoinduced electrons on the CNCB transferred easily to SSOCB. Therefore, the extended migration path prevents photogenerated electrons from returning the CNVB, which improves the separation efficiency of photogenerated electron–hole pairs [73]. Furthermore, the SSOCB (−0.75 eV) is more negative than the potential O2/·O2− (−0.33 V vs. NHE), the photoinduced electrons active in the SSOCB were captured by O2 in the solution, and formed superoxide radicals (·O2−) [74]. Meanwhile, the CNVB (1.70 eV) was more positive than the reduction potential for ·OH/OH− (+1.99 V vs. NHE) and H2O/·OH (+2.27 V vs. NHE). The photogenerated holes will react with water in the solution and form the active substance hydroxyl radicals (·OH) [75]. According to relevant studies, the CIP pollutants will form the intermediate 7-amino-1-cyclopropyl-2,3,5,6,8-pentahydroxyquinolin-4(1H)-one in the degradation process, and will be decomposed into H2O, CO2, and mineral acids by active substances [76,77]. The high longevity photogenerated carriers produced more active substances and facilitated the photocatalytic activity.

4. Conclusions

In summary, SrSnO3/g-C3N4 heterojunction photocatalyst was fabricated with an ultrasound-assisted hydrothermal method. Compared to pristine g-C3N4, the sample combined with 40% SrSnO3 could eliminate 93% CIP within 3 h under visible light, which is 1.7 times greater than that for pure g-C3N4, and 6.6 times more than for bare SrSnO3. The improvement in charge carrier trapping, immigration, and transfer brought about by the heterojunction construction promoted photocatalytic efficiency. In addition, the heterojunction photocatalyst had outstanding recyclability; 85% of the CIP was removed after five-repeat recycling degradation. To sum up, the SrSnO3/g-C3N4 heterojunction photocatalyst was a promising photocatalytic material, and should have greater application in water pollution control and treatment.

Author Contributions

Supervision, J.J.; methodology, S.H.; writing—original draft preparation, H.X.; writing—review and editing, Z.Z.; visualization, H.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by “Evaluation of resource and environment carrying capacity of geological cultural village under the background of rural revitalization strategy, grant number LF2019003”.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Crystals 12 01062 g001 550
Figure 1. XRD patterns of CN, SSO, 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, 50SSO/CN, and standard card.
Figure 1. XRD patterns of CN, SSO, 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, 50SSO/CN, and standard card.
Crystals 12 01062 g001
Crystals 12 01062 g002 550
Figure 2. FTIR patterns of CN (a), SSO (b), 10SSO/CN (c), 20SSO/CN (d), 30SSO/CN (e), 40SSO/CN (f), 50SSO/CN (g).
Figure 2. FTIR patterns of CN (a), SSO (b), 10SSO/CN (c), 20SSO/CN (d), 30SSO/CN (e), 40SSO/CN (f), 50SSO/CN (g).
Crystals 12 01062 g002
Crystals 12 01062 g007 550
Figure 7. PL emission patterns of CN, SSO, 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, and 50SSO/CN.
Figure 7. PL emission patterns of CN, SSO, 10SSO/CN, 20SSO/CN, 30SSO/CN, 40SSO/CN, and 50SSO/CN.
Crystals 12 01062 g007
Crystals 12 01062 g008 550
Figure 8. Photocatalytic degradation performance of as-prepared samples (a); kinetic curves of CIP degradation (b).
Figure 8. Photocatalytic degradation performance of as-prepared samples (a); kinetic curves of CIP degradation (b).
Crystals 12 01062 g008
Crystals 12 01062 g009 550
Figure 9. Reusability of photocatalytic activities experiment on 40SSO/CN photocatalyst.
Figure 9. Reusability of photocatalytic activities experiment on 40SSO/CN photocatalyst.
Crystals 12 01062 g009
Crystals 12 01062 g010 550
Figure 10. Possible mechanism of SSO/CN photocatalyst efficiency improvement.
Figure 10. Possible mechanism of SSO/CN photocatalyst efficiency improvement.
Crystals 12 01062 g010
Table
Table 1. Photocatalytic results of all samples.
Table 1. Photocatalytic results of all samples.
Sample NameDegradation (%)K (Min−1)R2
SSO14%0.000530.71435
CN52%0.003660.98234
10SSO/CN62%0.004830.98576
20SSO/CN86%0.008770.96844
30SSO/CN81%0.008010.97152
40SSO/CN93%0.012810.94085
50SSO/CN90%0.010740.93876
Table
Table 2. Comparison with other g-C3N4 based heterojunction photocatalyst in CIP degradation.
Table 2. Comparison with other g-C3N4 based heterojunction photocatalyst in CIP degradation.
Sample NameDegradation (%)Time (Min)Light SourceReference
TiO2/g-C3N493.4%60 minVisible light[61]
CeVO4/g-C3N492%70 minVisible light[62]
WO3/g-C3N4Almost 100%240 minVisible light[63]
Ag2O/g-C3N4100%120 minVisible light[64]
PbMoO4/g-C3N4Almost 100%120 minVisible light[65]
Ag3PO4/g-C3N485.3%180 minVisible light[66]
SiC/g-C3N495%30 minVisible light[67]
SrSnO3/g-C3N493%180 minVisible lightThis work
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Zhu, Z.; Xia, H.; Jiang, J.; Han, S.; Li, H. Ultrasound-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis of SrSnO3/g-C3N4 Heterojunction with Enhanced Photocatalytic Performance for Ciprofloxacin under Visible Light. Crystals 2022, 12, 1062. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12081062

AMA Style

Zhu Z, Xia H, Jiang J, Han S, Li H. Ultrasound-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis of SrSnO3/g-C3N4 Heterojunction with Enhanced Photocatalytic Performance for Ciprofloxacin under Visible Light. Crystals. 2022; 12(8):1062. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12081062

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Zhu, Zhengru, Haiwen Xia, Junchao Jiang, Songlin Han, and Hong Li. 2022. "Ultrasound-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis of SrSnO3/g-C3N4 Heterojunction with Enhanced Photocatalytic Performance for Ciprofloxacin under Visible Light" Crystals 12, no. 8: 1062. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12081062

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