Biochemical Interactions through Microscopic Techniques: Structural and Molecular Characterization
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. General and Basics Concepts in Microscopy
3. Biochemical Interactions in Material Sciences
3.1. Physicochemical Stability of Nanostructures
3.2. Self-Assembly of Biochemicals into Nanostructures
4. Biochemical Interactions in Life Sciences
4.1. Cyto-Histochemical Studies
4.2. Design of Probes for Live Cell Imaging
5. Biochemical Interactions at the Interface between Material and Life Sciences
5.1. Cell–Nanoparticle Interactions
5.2. Measurement of Biochemical Interaction Forces
6. Conclusions and Future Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Analytical Technique | Applications | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD) | Determination of protein secondary structures; kinetics and thermodynamics of biochemical interactions; the stability of protein complexes; determination of protein–protein structures | [29,30] |
Interferometry | Diagnostic assays; study of protein–protein interactions; kinetic binding measurements; | [31,32] |
Dynamic light scattering (DLS) | The size distribution of biomaterials and cells | [33] |
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) | Detection and quantification of the antigens and antibodies in biological samples | [34] |
Infrared and Raman spectroscopy | Molecular dynamics in solution, such as conformation changes during protein–substrate interactions; molecular configurations in cellular environments; biosensing | [11] |
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) | Study of weak biochemical interactions, such as protein–protein and protein–ligand interactions; drug design and discovery; identification of structure–activity relationships; identification of key interaction sites of macromolecules | [35,36,37] |
Resonance light scattering (RLS) | Study of biochemical assemblies, e.g., porphyrins, in different environments; design of functional supramolecular structures; designation of aggregating species; development of analytical methods | [38,39] |
Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) | Recognition of biochemicals; characterization of enzymatic activities based on biochemical interactions with a chemically modified substrate | [40] |
Surface plasmon resonance | Monitoring the affinity-based interaction of biochemicals in different environments; the label-free and real-time detection of pesticides, explosives, bacteria, viruses, toxins, allergens, and biomedical analytes | [41,42,43] |
Spectroscopic ellipsometry | Bio-sensing; surface and physical properties of thin-film materials | [44,45] |
X-ray crystallography | Study of crystal structures at the level of atomic resolution; identification of the binding modes of biochemical interactions, e.g., protein–ligand interactions; structure-based drug design | [46] |
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) | Structural and chemical characterization, extravasation, and subcellular distribution of particles at the nanoscale with a resolution of 2 nm | [47,48] |
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) | FCS can monitor the interactions between biomolecules and nanoparticles, e.g., FCS was used to quantify the functionalization efficiency of ligands (for example, avidin and antibody binding fragments (Fabs)) on the surface of nanoparticles | [49,50] |
Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) | CLSM allows optical slicing through tissues, thus enabling precise real-time imaging of liver cells, organelles, and intracellular trafficking of nanoparticles, such as the endosomal escape ability of nanoparticles | [51] |
Intravital real-time CLSM (IVRT-CLSM) | Quantitation of biochemicals, such as H2O2 and GSH in tissues; extravasation of biomaterials and nanoparticles out of the blood vessels into the tumor area directly in the living animals; IVRT-CLSM is also valuable for understanding the nano-bio interactions, such as sequestration and fate of biomaterials and nanoparticles in the reticuloendothelial system organs, such as biliary excretion | [47,52,53] |
Biochemical | Reagent | Remarks | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) | D-luciferin/luciferase | The luciferase oxidizes D-luciferin in the presence of ATP and magnesium to enzyme-bound luciferil-adenylate. The luciferil-adenylate complex is subsequently oxidized to oxyluciferine. The light emission is a consequence of the rapid loss of energy of the oxyluciferine molecule from an excited state to a stable one such that yellow-green photons are emitted. The amount of emitted light is proportional to the ATP content. | [77,78] |
Callose | Aniline blue | The reagent stains the callose in plant cell walls blue, which can be visualized under a light microscope. | [79] |
Lignin | Phloroglucinol + HCl | The reagent stains lignin purple-red, which can be visualized under a light microscope. | [80] |
Lipase | Resorufin ester | The resorufin ester has no fluorescence, while its cleavage via lipase enzymatic action releases resorufin, which emits fluorescence under visible light excitation at 570 nm in protoplast. | [81] |
Lipid bodies | Nile red | The reagent specifically stains lipid globules red, which can be visualized under a fluorescence microscope. | [76] |
Protein reserves | Naphthol Blue Black | The reagent specifically stains protein reserves dark blue, which can be visualized under a light microscope. | [82] |
Nucleic acids | Alum hematoxylin | The reagent stains the nuclei blue, which is observable under a light microscope. This staining procedure is followed by counterstaining with an alcoholic solution of eosin Y, which stains other cellular structures red, pink, and orange. | [83] |
Starch reserves | Periodic acid–Schiff | The reagent stains starch reserves pink, which can be visualized under a light microscope. | [74] |
Suberin | Toluidine blue O | The reagent stains the aliphatic domains of suberin yellow, which can be visualized with an optical microscope using white light. | [84] |
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Nezammahalleh, H.; Ghanati, F.; Rezaei, S.; Badshah, M.A.; Park, J.; Abbas, N.; Ali, A. Biochemical Interactions through Microscopic Techniques: Structural and Molecular Characterization. Polymers 2022, 14, 2853. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142853
Nezammahalleh H, Ghanati F, Rezaei S, Badshah MA, Park J, Abbas N, Ali A. Biochemical Interactions through Microscopic Techniques: Structural and Molecular Characterization. Polymers. 2022; 14(14):2853. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142853
Chicago/Turabian StyleNezammahalleh, Hassan, Faezeh Ghanati, Shima Rezaei, Mohsin Ali Badshah, Joobee Park, Naseem Abbas, and Ahsan Ali. 2022. "Biochemical Interactions through Microscopic Techniques: Structural and Molecular Characterization" Polymers 14, no. 14: 2853. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142853