Polymeric Nanoparticles in Brain Cancer Therapy: A Review of Current Approaches
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Major Polymers in Nanoparticle-Based Brain Cancer Research
2.1. Polyanhydride
2.2. Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)
2.3. Poly (β-amino ester)
2.4. Chitosan
2.5. Poly(amidoamine) Dendrimers
2.6. Poly(caprolactone)
2.7. Poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate)
3. General Modifications
3.1. Polyethylene Glycol
3.2. pH
3.3. Size
3.4. Shape
4. Receptor Targeting for Blood–Brain Barrier Penetration
5. Receptor Targeting for Delivery to Brain Cancer Cells
5.1. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor
5.2. Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor
6. Mechanisms of Delivery
6.1. Focused Ultrasound
6.2. Convection-Enhanced Delivery
6.3. Nose-to-Brain Delivery
6.4. Intracranial Hydrogel Delivery
6.5. Cell-Based Delivery
7. Discussion and Future Directions
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Polymer Type | Common Synthesis Techniques | Advantages | Disadvantages | Specific Uses Cited |
---|---|---|---|---|
Polyanhydride | Most often via polycondensations from diacids or diacyl anhydrides; can also be prepared via solvent evaporation from emulsion, or thiol-ene ‘click’ polymerization, or melt condensation; NP synthesis via nanoprecipitation | Well-characterized; biocompatible; biodegradable; modifiable (depending on copolymer and surface ligand composition); hydrophobic; predictable rate of release/erosion | Rapid erosion can lead to inadequate ligand retention times; difficult to synthesize; limited stability of loaded peptides and proteins due to nucleophile acylation | Gliadel® (BCNU) wafer for local, sustained-release chemotherapy [14]; drug delivery across the BBB [21]; delivery of non-proteinaceous cargo [16] |
Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) | Co-polymerization of cyclic dimers of glycolic acid and lactic acid; NP synthesis via emulsification-evaporation, nanoprecipitation, phase-inversion, and solvent diffusion; emulsification-evaporation and nanoprecipitation are most commonly used when loading hydrophobic moieties | Widely used; biocompatible; simple biodegradability; easily synthesized; modifiable charge, hydrophobicity, and degradation rate; sustained drug-release; good BBB/tumor penetration | Poor drug loading efficiency; poor drug target delivery efficiency due to high burst release; destabilization of acid-sensitive drugs/peptides | Encapsulation of chemotherapeutics with toxicity profiles indicating sustained, low dosing [7]; microsphere and microparticle drug delivery systems [23] |
Poly (β-amino ester) | Conjugate addition of amines to bis(acrylamides) and copolymerization; NP synthesis via solvent/anti-solvent formulation | Established safety profile; biocompatible; biodegradable; easily synthesized; high efficacy; pH buffering capacity; able to escape endosomes and allow intracellular expression of nucleic acids | Instability in blood (rapid hydrolysis) without surface modifications; limited ability to achieve widespread gene transfer due to adhesive interactions with ECM | Delivery of polynucleotides and other acid-labile compounds [36]; delivery of nucleic acids to cells [44] |
Chitosan | Enzymatic or chemical deacetylation of chitin, usually through hydrolysis, produces chitosan; NP synthesis via emulsification and crosslinking, microemulsion, precipitation, or ionic gelation | Biodegradable; capable of mucous membrane adherence and transcytosis; sustained drug release; putative preferential release in tumor acidic environment | Low solubility at physiological pH; tendency to aggregate | Nose-to-brain delivery (via mucous membrane adherence) [46]; in situ gelation [73]; tumor targeting via differential pH [47] |
Poly(amidoamine) dendrimers | Convergent (beginning with exterior and adding end groups while working towards the core) or divergent synthesis (beginning with core and adding end groups towards the exterior); end group additions via conjugate addition | Biocompatible; flexible, non-toxic; stable; highly soluble; small; modifiable; large hydrophilic surface area; presence of cavities; resistance to denaturation after freezing/thawing | Associated with (modifiable) cytotoxicity; synthesis can lead to heterogeneous mixture of dendrimers unless additional purification steps are completed | Precision-targeting [52]; delivery across the BBB [54]; encapsulating particularly insoluble contents [53] |
Poly(caprolactone) | Polycondensation of 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid, or ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone; NP synthesis via nanoemulsification, supercritical fluid extraction of emulsion, or solvent evaporation | Biodegradable; non-toxic; modifiable; stable | High hydrophobicity (slow degradation rate of months/years) | Combination with other copolymers to tailor NP suitability to cargo [56] |
Poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) | Free radical, anionic, and zwitterionic polymerization; NP synthesis via polymerization in aqueous acidic phase or through interfacial emulsion polymerization | Biodegradable; modifiable; enhanced intracellular penetration; capable of overcoming multidrug resistance | BBB translocation ability remains controversial | Hydrogel-incorporated drug delivery [66]; delivery of nucleic acids and peptides [66]; continuous drug delivery (vs. bursts) [66]; instances of multidrug resistance [70] |
Polymer Modification | Advantages | Disadvantages | General Uses | |
Polyethylene glycol | Widely used; classified as GRAS; increases systemic circulation time of NPs; reduces recognition of NPs by immune cells; decreases NP aggregation, opsonization, and phagocytosis | Reduced cellular uptake of PEGylated NPs | Modify NP to reduce immunogenicity | |
pH | Can improve selective tumor targeting via triggered drug release | Limits the types of cargo able to be carried within the NP | Modify NP to selectively target tumor tissue and spare surrounding parenchyma | |
Size | Can increase NP stability; can potentially increase BBB/BBTB penetration and brain parenchymal spread | Conflicting in vitro/in vivo results on ideal size of NPs for BBB/BBTB penetrance, brain tissue spread, and cellular uptake | Modify NP to increase intra-tumoral spread | |
Shape | Can modulate NP circulation time, cellular uptake, and BBB penetration | Certain shapes promote accumulation in non-target organs; ideal shape, depending on delivery mechanism, requires further investigation | Modify NP to maximize efficacy based on delivery mechanism (e.g., nose-to-brain vs. across BBB) |
Mechanism of Delivery | Type(s) of Polymeric NPs Used | Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|
Focused Ultrasound | PLGA [133] | Can reversibly open BBB; targeted delivery; safety supported via clinical trials; minimal systemic effects | Acute complications such as microhemorrhages reported; invasive |
Convection-Enhanced Delivery | PLGA [171], PBAE [143], Chitosan [172], PAMAM [173], PCL [174] | High volume of distribution reported; targeted delivery; multiple ongoing clinical trials; potential for use post-resection; minimal systemic effects | No definitive increase in glioma patient survival time reported; infection; limited therapeutic administration windows; invasive |
Nose-to-Brain Delivery | PLGA [151], Chitosan [46], PCL [153] | Minimally invasive; easier to study in vivo; bypasses BBB; minimal systemic effects | Exact delivery mechanism and clearance pathways unclear; non-targeted delivery; bioavailability can be low compared to other delivery mechanisms; limited NP clinical studies |
Intracranial Hydrogel Delivery | PLGA [155], Chitosan [73], PCL [175] | Potential for use post-resection; targeted delivery; passively controlled drug release; variety of potential approaches; minimal systemic effects | Difficult to use with hydrophobic NPs; invasive; non-targeted delivery |
Cell-Based Delivery | PLGA [168] | Minimally invasive; limited clearance via reticuloendothelial system compared to other systemic delivery approaches | Limited NP clinical studies; non-targeted delivery |
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Caraway, C.A.; Gaitsch, H.; Wicks, E.E.; Kalluri, A.; Kunadi, N.; Tyler, B.M. Polymeric Nanoparticles in Brain Cancer Therapy: A Review of Current Approaches. Polymers 2022, 14, 2963. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142963
Caraway CA, Gaitsch H, Wicks EE, Kalluri A, Kunadi N, Tyler BM. Polymeric Nanoparticles in Brain Cancer Therapy: A Review of Current Approaches. Polymers. 2022; 14(14):2963. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142963
Chicago/Turabian StyleCaraway, Chad A., Hallie Gaitsch, Elizabeth E. Wicks, Anita Kalluri, Navya Kunadi, and Betty M. Tyler. 2022. "Polymeric Nanoparticles in Brain Cancer Therapy: A Review of Current Approaches" Polymers 14, no. 14: 2963. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142963
APA StyleCaraway, C. A., Gaitsch, H., Wicks, E. E., Kalluri, A., Kunadi, N., & Tyler, B. M. (2022). Polymeric Nanoparticles in Brain Cancer Therapy: A Review of Current Approaches. Polymers, 14(14), 2963. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142963