The Potential of Electrospun Membranes in the Treatment of Textile Wastewater: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Textile Wastewater: Composition and Purification Requirements
3. Electrospinning—Process Technology and Operation
3.1. Processing Parameters
3.1.1. Solution Parameters
- -
- Concentration and viscosity
- -
- Molecular weight
- -
- Conductivity
3.1.2. Process Parameters
- -
- Applied voltage
- -
- Distance between the needle and collector
- -
- Flow rate
- -
- Needle diameter
- -
- Collector
3.1.3. Environmental Parameters
- -
- Temperature
- -
- Humidity
4. Electrospun Membranes for Water Treatment
4.1. Synthetic Polymers
4.2. Natural Polymers
4.2.1. Cellulose Acetate
4.2.2. Chitosan
4.2.3. Alginate
4.2.4. β-Cyclodextrin
5. Limitations of Textile Wastewater Filtering Structures by Electrospinning
6. Conclusions and Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Membrane Composition | Results | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) | Retention of 99.99% of bacteriophages and 99.9999% of bacteria. | [78] |
PAN Haloisite nanotubes (HNTs) | The incorporation of HNTs, especially 1% w/w, improved the mechanical and thermal properties of the membranes. Rejection rate of 99.5% of oil/water for membranes with 3% w/w HNTs, and removal efficiency of 31.1% of heavy metal ions. | [79] |
PAN TIME Jute cellulose nanowhiskers | Good mechanical properties, efficient nanoparticle filtration capacity, and good oil/water separation (with a rejection rate of over 99%). | [80] |
PAN Diethylenetriamine (DETA) | Maximum adsorption capacities: methylene blue—184.84 mg/g; rhodamine B—367.65 mg/g; safratin T—195.7 mg/g. The membrane showed higher maximum adsorption capacities when compared to conventional adsorbents. | [81] |
PAN Structure of zeolitic imidazole-67 (ZIF-67) | Maximum adsorption capacities of malachite green: ZIF-67 membranes—2545 mg/g; ZIF-67/PAN membrane—1305 mg/g. After four regeneration cycles, the ZIF-67/PAN membrane showed more than 92% of its original capacity. It also showed good adsorption abilities for Congo red (849 mg/g) and fuchsin (730 mg/g). The membrane can be reused by washing it with ethanol. | [82] |
PAN Graphene oxide (GO) Titanium dioxide (TiO2) β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) | In 5 h, the degradation efficiency for methyl orange and methylene blue was around 93.52% and 90.92%, respectively. The membranes’ MB and MO degradation efficiency was 80% for the first three cycles, but dropped to around 68.42% and 65.13% in the fifth cycle, respectively. Antibacterial properties against E. coli and S. aureus. | [83] |
PAN Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) | Almost complete degradation after 120 min and 60 min for methylene blue and indigo carmine, respectively. Improvements of 38% and 84% in tensile strength and elastic modulus, respectively, with just 0.05 wt% CNTs. | [84] |
Polyacrylonitrile-co-maleic acid (PANCMA) GO TiO2 | Under optimized conditions, by the E-spun RGO/TiO2/PANCMA NFs, 90.6% of malachite green and 93.7% of leucomalachite green were adsorbed in 2 min, and subsequently 91.4% and 95.2% adsorbed were degraded in 60 min under UV irradiation, respectively. Good recyclability. Before the 14th cycle, the removal efficiencies of malachite green and leucomalachite were over 91%. | [85] |
PAN GO | High rejection performance (almost 100% rejection of Congo red, 56.7% for Na2SO4, and 9.8% for NaCl). The water flow under extremely low external pressure (1.0 bar) increased significantly due to the structure of the graphene oxide layer and the nanofibrous support. | [86] |
PAN Cellulose acetate (CA) | The optimum solution pH values for the adsorption of Fe(III), Cu(II), and Cd(II) ions were 2, 5, and 6, respectively, and the adsorption equilibria were obtained in 5, 20, and 60 min. The amount of saturation adsorption of the nanofibrous membranes (at 25 °C) for Fe(III), Cu(II), and Cd(II) was 7.47, 4.26, and 1.13 mmol/g, respectively. After five consecutive adsorption and desorption tests, the desorption rate of the metal ions maintained more than 80% of their first desorption rate. The AOPAN/RC nanofibers showed excellent regeneration capacity. | [87] |
PAN ZIF-8 | With relatively larger surface areas (of 871.0 m2/g) and adequate pore sizes (from around 0.6 to 0.8 nm), the nanofibers exhibited greater Cr(VI) adsorption capacity (with qmax of 39.68 mg/g) and good recyclability. | [88] |
PAN Polyaniline (PANI) | The maximum adsorption capacities for lead and Cr2O72− on the PANI-coated membranes were 290.12 and 1202.53 mg/g, respectively. Greater removal of lead ions (99%) compared to chromium (VI) ions (90%) at 5 mg/L. The PAN/PANI membrane retained almost 58% and 60% of its initial adsorption capacity after four cycles for Cr2O72− and Pb(II). | [89] |
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) 1,2,3,4 butanetetracarboxylic acid (BTAC) crosslinked | Good performance in adsorbing the dye Reactive red 141. The maximum adsorption capacity reached 88.31 mg/g. If the temperature is increased from 110 °C to 130 °C, the adsorption capacity decreases. | [90] |
PVA Silica (SiO2) Chitosan | The addition of 1.0% wt SiO2 resulted in a significant improvement in dye rejection and water permeability. Under 0.4 bar transmembrane pressure, the improved nanocomposite membrane yielded 98% Direct Red 23 rejection with a water flux value as high as 1711 L/m2h. It was discovered that the membranes were reusable and antifouling. | [91] |
PVA SiO2 Cyclodextrin | The maximum adsorption capacity for the indigo carmine dye reached 495 mg/g and adsorption equilibrium was reached in less than 40 min. Recycled through acidification. | [92] |
PVA Chitosan | The maximum adsorption capacity was 266.12 mg/g (Pb(II)) and 148.79 mg/g (Cd(II)). Detailed adsorption studies were carried out at pH 8 and 6 for Cd(II) and Pb(II), respectively. It is a simpler and more sustainable process than conventional methods. | [93] |
PVA Konjac glucomannan (KGM) Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) | Filtration efficiency for ultrafine particles (300 nm) of over 99.99%, superior to commercial HEPA filters. Methyl orange removal efficiency of over 98%, with an initial concentration of 20 mg/L, during 120 min of solar irradiation. Antibacterial activity (E. coli and Bacillus subtilis). | [94] |
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) Copper (II) acetate hydrate Zinc (II) acetate | A total of 100% degradation of mixed dyes (methylene blue, rhodamine B, and methyl orange, 10 ppm each) in 90 min. Good reusability (94.1% after five cycles). | [95] |
PVP Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) Niobium pentoxide (Nb2O5) | After 120 min in visible light, 98.1% degradation was recorded for rhodamine B and phenol (10 mg/L each). No obvious change in the performance of the nanofibers was recorded after four cycles (remained ≈ 98%). | [96] |
PVP Zinc oxide (ZnO) Bismuth oxide (Bi2O3) | The compound with a molar ratio of 23:1 (ZnO/Bi2O3) showed the best activity under both excitations (UV and visible light). Approximately 95% degradation of rhodamine B (1.0 × 10−5 M, 60 mL) was reported after 90 min. | [97] |
PVP Zinc tungstate (ZnWO4) | The degradation efficiency of rhodamine B (10 mg/L) was over 90% in about 90 min of irradiation. There was no decline in photocatalytic activity after five photodegradation cycles. | [98] |
Lacase Polyetherimide (PEI) Polycaprolactone (PCL) | After ten cycles, PCL/PEI/TTL and PCL/PEI/TVL had residual activities of 33.2 ± 0.2% and 26.0 ± 0.9%, respectively. At 50 °C and pH 5, PCL/PEI/TTL demonstrated the highest decolorization efficiency of orange II and malachite green, reaching over 86% and 46%, respectively, after eight continuous uses. PCL/PEI/TTL and PCL/PEI/TVL had maximum removal efficiencies of 64.5 ± 7.6% and 52.6 ± 0.1%, respectively, and successfully decomposed 2,6-dichlorophenol. Environmentally friendly, sustainable materials. | [99] |
PEI TiO2 | The PEI membrane modified with 0.2% TiO2 achieved a significant removal rate of E. coli (99%) and humic acid (≈80%). Degradation of 85% of methylene blue during the photocatalytic process. | [100] |
Polystyrene (PS) GO | PSGO films had a removal capacity ≈ 2.3 times higher than that of pure PS membranes. After 120 min, the equilibrium value of the adsorption capacity (qe = 114 mg/g) was reached for all of the methylene blue concentrations that were examined. After the first cycle, the removal capacity was reduced to ≈65%, a value that became constant during subsequent cycles (up to a maximum of five cycles). | [101] |
PEN Bisphenol A (BPA) Hydroquinone methanesulfonic acid potassium salt (HQS) 2,6-difluorobenzonitrile (DFBN) | Methylene blue exhibited a high adsorption capacity of 796.25 mg/g. Even after eight separation–regeneration cycles, the optimized membrane achieved a 99% selective removal efficiency of cationic dyes. Good recyclability and stability at high temperatures. | [102] |
Sample | Surface Area (m2/g) | Pore Volume (cm3/g) | Tensile Strength (MPa) | Elongation at Break (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Non-crosslinked | 13.97 | 0.0256 | 3.8 | 9.8 |
CaCl2 crosslinked | 13.56 | 0.0450 | 10.4 | 9.9 |
GA vapor crosslinked | 11.86 | 0.0185 | 3.7 | 11.2 |
TFA crosslinked | 15.26 | 0.0455 | 3.6 | 12.3 |
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Rocha, J.M.; Sousa, R.P.C.L.; Fangueiro, R.; Ferreira, D.P. The Potential of Electrospun Membranes in the Treatment of Textile Wastewater: A Review. Polymers 2024, 16, 801. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16060801
Rocha JM, Sousa RPCL, Fangueiro R, Ferreira DP. The Potential of Electrospun Membranes in the Treatment of Textile Wastewater: A Review. Polymers. 2024; 16(6):801. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16060801
Chicago/Turabian StyleRocha, Joana M., Rui P. C. L. Sousa, Raul Fangueiro, and Diana P. Ferreira. 2024. "The Potential of Electrospun Membranes in the Treatment of Textile Wastewater: A Review" Polymers 16, no. 6: 801. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16060801