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Article

Effects of Various Environmental Conditions on the Growth of Amaranthus patulus Bertol. and Changes of Herbicide Efficacy Caused by Increasing Temperatures

by
Hyun-Hwa Park
1,
Do-Jin Lee
2 and
Yong-In Kuk
1,*
1
Department of Bio-Oriental Medicine Resources, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922, Korea
2
Department of Agricultural Education, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922, Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2021, 11(9), 1773; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11091773
Submission received: 19 August 2021 / Revised: 1 September 2021 / Accepted: 2 September 2021 / Published: 3 September 2021
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Abstract

:
Understanding the effects of climate change on weed growth and herbicide activity is important for optimizing herbicide applications for effective weed control in the future. Therefore, this study examined how climate change affects the growth of Amaranthus patulus and the efficacy of soil and foliar herbicides at different temperatures. Although the control values for A. patulus differed between herbicides and temperature, the control values increased with increasing time after the herbicide treatments. Under growth conditions in which the temperature remained constant, the efficacy of soil-applied herbicides, ethalfluralin, metolachlor, linuron, and alachlor, on A. patulus was highest when the weeds were grown at high temperature. In particular, 100% control values of A. patulus were achieved in response to metolachlor treatments at the total recommended dosage in growth chambers at 35 °C. The efficacy of foliar herbicides, glufosinate-ammonium, bentazone, and mecoprop, on A. patulus was also highest when the plant was grown at high temperature, except for glyphosate isopropylamine, which had similar efficacy rates regardless of the temperature. A. patulus was 100% controlled in response to glufosinate-ammonium, bentazone, and mecoprop at the recommended dosages in growth chambers at 30 and 35 °C. Under growth conditions in which the temperature changed from day to night, the efficacy of soil-applied herbicides, alachlor and linuron, on A. patulus was highest when the weeds were grown at high temperature. On the other hand, the efficacy of the soil-applied herbicides metolachlor and linuron on A. patulus was similar regardless of the temperature. The efficacy of foliar herbicides, glyphosate isopropylamine, glufosinate-ammonium, bentazone, and mecoprop, on A. patulus was highest when the weeds were grown at high temperature. Although herbicide efficacy varied depending on whether the weeds were grown at constant or alternating temperatures, herbicide efficacy was generally highest when the temperature was high.

1. Introduction

Among the many consequences of climate change, rising temperatures [1] and altered precipitation patterns are having the most significant impact on agriculture because of their ability to increase the probability of summer droughts [2,3,4]. In addition to these direct consequences of climate change, indirect consequences are expected to affect sustainability and food security [5]. In many ways, weather extremes associated with climate change are a very serious concern for crop management.
The impact of climate change on weedy vegetation may be manifested in the form of geographic range expansion (migration or introduction to new areas), alterations in the species life cycles, and population dynamics [6]. Increasing CO2, temperature, and water or nutrient availability may allow new weeds to become more problematic or existing weeds to expand their geographical locations [7]. Weeds respond quickly to resource changes and are more likely to adapt and flourish in various habitats owing to their greater genetic diversity and physiological plasticity than crops [8].
Increasing atmospheric temperatures could promote the growth of some weeds in warm-season crops cultures. A 3 °C rise in the average temperature enhanced biomass and leaf area of itch grass (Rottboelliia cochinchinensis) by 88% and 68%, respectively [9]. An increase in temperature due to global warming might trigger weed migration. Milder and wetter winters would tend to increase the survival of winter annual weeds. In contrast, thermophile summer annuals will grow more profusely in areas with warmer summers under prolonged growing seasons, enabling them to grow further north [10,11].
Herbicides have become the major tools for weed management because of their simplicity in use, great efficacy, and, more importantly, reduced control costs by saving labor and time [12]. The successful use of herbicides depends on environmental conditions before, during, and after herbicide application. The environment influences the growth and physiology of plants, as well as herbicide activity and the interaction between plant and herbicide. Therefore, understanding how environmental conditions affect herbicide performance is important for realizing the impact of climate change on herbicide efficacy.
Environmental factors, such as light, CO2, temperature, soil moisture, relative humidity, rainfall, and wind can affect herbicide efficacy directly by altering the penetration and translocation of herbicides within the plant or indirectly by changing the growth and physiological characteristics of the plant. While foliar herbicides are influenced by many environmental factors, soil-applied herbicides are influenced mainly by soil moisture and temperature [8]. Temperature can affect herbicide performance directly through its effects on the rate of herbicide diffusion, viscosity of cuticle waxes, and physicochemical properties of spray solutions [13].
New and effective herbicides may be needed if new weeds are introduced into a non-native area. A. patulus is a troublesome exotic weed of upland crops. Understanding the effects of climate change on weed growth and herbicide activity is important for optimizing herbicide applications for effective weed control in the future [8]. Temperature has both direct and indirect effects on herbicide efficacy. However, the underlying mechanisms responsible for varying rates of herbicide efficacy at different temperatures is poorly understood and needs investigation for a better management of weeds.
Therefore, this study examined how climate change and different temperature conditions affect the growth of Amaranthus patulus and the efficacy of soil and foliar herbicides.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Materials

Seeds of A. patulus were collected from a field used for corn production at one of Sunchon National University’s research farms in South Korea in the fall of 2020. The seeds were refrigerated at 4 °C until use.

2.2. Environmental Conditions for Growth of A. patulus

Fifteen seeds of A. patulus were planted in small trays (18 × 13 × 9.5 cm3) with a commercial potting mixture (Sunghwa CO. Bosung, Chonnam, South Korea). The trays were placed in growth chambers (Multi-room Incubator, VS-1203PFC-LN, Vision Bionex, Buchon, South Korea) at different temperatures (15, 20, 25, and 30 °C). For the CO2 study, CO2 chambers (HB-303DH-0, Hanbaek Scientific Co. Buchon, Gyeonggido, South Korea) were set to 400 or 700 ppm, and a temperature of 25 °C was maintained throughout the experiment. Other growth chamber conditions were 60% relative humidity, 14/10 day/night photoperiod, and 100 μmol m−2 s−1 light intensity.
For seeding depths and shading degree experiments, the experiment was conducted outdoors with windbreaks. The seeds were planted at depths of 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 cm in loam-filled small trays (18 × 13 × 9.5 cm3). Seeds that had been planted at a depth of 0.5 cm in loam-filled small trays (18 × 13 × 9.5 cm3) were used for the shading degree experiments. After seeding, a light-shielding polyethylene film (Morpho Inc., Dasan, Gyeongnam, South Korea) was installed to reduce natural light exposure by 20, 35, 50, 75, and 90%. The control was exposed to full natural light.
During the experiment, the temperature was 28 ± 2 °C/18 ± 2 °C at day/night. There was no rainfall, and proper soil moisture was maintained. The germination rates were measured 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, and 17 days after seeding, whereas plant height, leaf area, and shoot fresh weight were measured 17 days after seeding. Leaf area was measured by an LI-3100 area meter (LI-COR, Inc., Lincoln, NE, USA).

2.3. Herbicide Efficacy in A. patulus Grown in a Growth Chamber at Different Temperatures

Five seeds of A. patulus were planted at a depth of 1 cm in a loam-filled plastic cup (150 mL) and placed in a growth chamber at 25 °C (Multi-room Incubator, VS-1203PFC-LN, Vision Bionex, Buchon, South Korea). The other growth chamber conditions were 70% relative humidity, 14/10 h of photoperiod (day/night), 100 μmol m−2 s−1 light intensity. Soil-applied herbicides, i.e., ethalfluralin, metolachlor, linuron, and alachlor, were applied three days after sowing. The herbicides were applied using a hand sprayer, as shown in Table 1. The treated plots were placed in the growth chamber at 25, 30, and 35 °C. The other growth chamber conditions were the same as above. Them 1, 5,10, and 15 days after treatment, injury ratings were determined, based on a composite visual estimation of growth inhibition, bleaching, and necrosis using a scale ranging from 0 (no effect) to 100 (completely dead). For visual estimation, the herbicides were applied at their respective recommended dosage.
The shoot fresh weight was also measured 15 days after treatment. The control values were calculated by the shoot fresh weight compared to the untreated control. For control values, the herbicides were applied at half and full recommended dosages.
In cases where the foliar herbicides bentazone, glufosinate-ammonium, glyphosate-isopropylamine, and mecoprop were applied, five seeds of A. patulus were planted at a depth of 1 cm in a loam-filled plastic cup (150 mL and placed in a growth chamber at 25 °C (Multi-room Incubator, VS-1203PFC-LN, Vision Bionex, Buchon, South Korea). Then, 14 days after sowing (3–4 leaf stage), the foliar herbicides were applied, and the plots were placed in the growth chamber at 25, 30, and 35 °C. The other procedures were the same as those mentioned in the soil application experiment.

2.4. Herbicide Efficacy in A. patulus under Greenhouse Conditions at Different Temperatures

Fifteen seeds of A. patulus were planted in loam-filled small trays (18 × 13 × 9.5 cm3) and placed under greenhouse conditions at a daily average temperature of 24 °C. The greenhouse was kept, on average, at 60% relative humidity, with a photoperiod of 14/10 h (day/night) and a light intensity of 500 μmol m−2 s−1. Three days after seeding, soil-applied herbicides, i.e., ethalfluralin, metolachlor, linuron, and alachlor, were applied. The herbicides were applied using a hand sprayer, as shown Table 1. The average temperature of each greenhouse during the experimental period (14 days) was 24, 26, and 28 °C (Figure 1). The average temperature and relative humidity during the experimental period were calculated using a data logger (SK-L200TH, SATO, Tokyo, Japan). Then, 1, 5,10, and 15 days after treatment, the injury ratings were determined, based on a composite visual estimation of growth inhibition, bleaching, and necrosis using a scale of 0 (no effect) to 100 (complete death). The shoot fresh weight was measured 15 days after treatment. The control values were calculated based on the shoot fresh weight of plants used as untreated control.
In tests using the foliar herbicides bentazone, glufosinate-ammonium, glyphosate isopropylamine, and mecoprop, 15 seeds of A. patulus were planted in loam-filled small trays (18 × 13 × 9.5 cm3). Table 1 presents herbicide components. The trays were placed in a greenhouse at an average temperature of 25 °C before the applications. Seven days after seeding, six plants per tray were maintained. Foliar herbicides were applied 14 days after seeding (3–4 leaf stage), and the treated plants were placed in greenhouses at average temperatures of 24, 26, and 28 °C during the treatment period. Other procedures were the same as those mentioned above.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

All experiments were carried out with three replicates. The data were analyzed using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure in the Statistical Analysis Systems software. The means were separated using a Duncan’s multiple range test (p = 0.05).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Environmental Conditions for Growth of A. patulus

The highest germination rates of A. patulus (62–91%) were observed when seeds were planted at depths of 0, 0.5, and 1 cm (Table 2). At depths of 2, 3, 5, and 7 cm, the germination rates were lower (14–43%). The plant height and leaf area were significantly higher when the seeds were planted at 0.5, 1, 2, and 3 cm than at 0, 5, and 7 cm. When the seeds were planted at depths of 0, 0.5, 1, 2, and 3 cm, the resulting plants had significantly more leaves than the plants from seeds planted at depths of 5 and 7 cm. The shoot fresh weight was highest when the seeds were planted at depths of 2 cm. In addition, the shoot fresh weight of the plants planted at depths of 0.5, 1, and 2 cm was significantly higher than that of plants planted at 0, 5, and 7 cm. Most weeds germinated well and fast in shallow soil [14,15,16].
Compared to the control without shade, A. patulus seeds germinated at a higher rate under 20% shade (Table 3). The germination rates were reduced by increasing the shade level. This result means A. patulus seeds are capable of germinating under a variety of light conditions. Furthermore, plant height, leaf number, and shoot fresh weight of plants grown under 0, 20, and 35% shade were significantly greater than those of plants grown under 50, 75, and 90% shade. On the other hand, the leaf area was similar, regardless of the shade conditions.
Shade affected stem elongation. Generally, the plant height increased with an increasing amount of shade provided. In this study, the plant height increased with increasing shade levels from 0 to 35% but decreased at higher shade levels of 50—90%. On the other hand, in another study, the plant height of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica increased with increasing shade levels [17]. Furthermore, the plant height of Sicyos angulatus under 60% shade conditions was three times higher than under non-shade conditions [18].
The ideal temperatures for germination of A. patulus were between 25 °C and 30 °C (Figure 2). This temperature range produced the highest levels of germination (77–80%). Furthermore, plant height, shoot fresh weight, leaf number, and leaf area were higher at 25 °C and 30 °C than at 15 and 20 °C (Figure 3). In lower temperature conditions at 15 °C, A. patulus seeds had germination rates of 23%. This result means that A. patulus seeds have viability potential under bad environmental conditions. In different CO2 conditions, germination of A. patulus was not significantly different in CO2 chambers between 400 and 800 ppm (Figure 4). Plant height and leaf area were also not significantly different in 400 and 700 ppm CO2 chambers (Figure 5). However, shoot fresh weight and leaf number were higher at 400 ppm CO2 than 800 ppm. In brief, C3 plants physiologically benefited from rising the CO2 levels more than C4 plants such as A. patulus [7]. In another study, spurred anoda (Anoda cristata) and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti) produced more dry matter at 32/23 °C day/night temperature than at 26/17 °C day/night temperature, indicating that a higher temperature was more favorable for their growth [19]. In a study of the effects of temperature on the growth and competitiveness of soybean (Glycine max), smooth pigweed (A. hybridus), and common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium), each 3 °C increment in day/night temperature from 26/17 to 32/23 °C increased growth [20]. Guo and Al-Khatib [21] reported that the seedling growth rates of redroot pigweed (A. retroflexus), palmer amaranth (A. palmeri), and common water hemp (A. rudis) increased at high temperatures, suggesting that the amount of time for POST herbicide applications to be most effective (when the seedlings are younger) decreases at high temperatures. Lee [22] suggested that increased temperature had a more significant effect on plant phenological development than elevated CO2. Increasing the temperature by 4 °C advanced the emergence time of Chenopodium album and Setaria viridis by 26 and 35 days, respectively, and the corresponding flowering time by 50 and 31.5 days. Increased temperatures strongly affected biomass accumulation by annual grass species during their reproductive phase compared to the vegetative phase. Such effects were more pronounced in C3 than C4 plant species. In addition to these effects, temperature also affects the rate of water absorption and movement, which affects the rate of leaf development, cuticle thickness, and stomatal number and their aperture, thereby indirectly affecting herbicide selectivity and efficacy [23,24,25].

3.2. Herbicide Efficacy in A. patulus Grown in a Growth Chamber at Different Temperatures

The efficacy of an herbicide on weeds depends largely on its interaction with the atmosphere, soil, and the soil–atmosphere interface [8]. Several environmental factors, such as temperature, moisture, relative humidity, and solar radiation, influence a plant’s physiologic status and susceptibility to herbicides. Among these factors, temperature can have significant effects on plant growth and herbicide performance. Therefore, understanding the effects of climate change on weed growth and herbicide activity is essential for optimizing herbicide applications for effective weed control in the future [8].
For all soil-applied herbicides tested, the efficacy in A. patulus increased with time (Figure 6). After ethalfluralin, metolachlor, linuron, and alachlor treatments, A. patulus was kept in the growth chambers at 25, 30, and 35 °C, where weeds showed increasing damage rates. Herbicide efficacy was checked 1, 5, 10, and 15 days after treatment. The alachlor and ethalfluralin efficacy rates in A. patulus were low and did not vary regardless of the temperature. On the other hand, the metolachlor and linuron efficacy rates in A. patulus were high, particularly 15 days after treatment and when the weeds were in growth chambers at 35 °C.
The control values were low when alachlor treatments at 50% and 100% of the recommended dosage were applied to A. patulus (Figure 7). Conversely, despite having low overall control values, the experiments with the highest control values were those where A. patulus was kept in a growth chamber at 30 °C. When metolachlor was applied at half the recommended dosage, the control values declined as growth chamber temperatures increased. On the other hand, the control values increased with increasing temperature in the growth chambers when metolachlor was applied at its full recommended dosage. The 100% control values of A. patulus were achieved in response to metolachlor treatments at the full recommended dosage in growth chambers at 35 °C. The application of ethalfluralin to weeds in growth chambers at the temperature of 35 °C also produced the highest control values. At half the recommended dosage, the ethalfluralin control values increased significantly with increasing temperature in the growth chambers. Similarly, the control values after linuron applications at the half and full recommended dosages increased significantly with increasing growth chamber temperature.
As in the case of soil-applied herbicides, foliar herbicides, such as bentazone, glufosinate-ammonium, glyphosate isopropylamine, and mecoprop, also had visual damage ratings that increased with time when they were applied to A. patulus grown in growth chambers at temperatures of 25, 30, and 35 °C (Figure 8). The glyphosate isopropylamine efficacy in controlling A. patulus, based on visual rating, was low and did not vary regardless of the temperature. The efficacy of glufosinate-ammonium and bentazone generally increased with increasing temperature. On the other hand, the visual ratings, while high in both cases, were similar when the herbicides were applied to weeds growing in growth chambers at 30 and 35 °C, 10 and 15 days after treatment. The efficacy of mecoprop was highest when it was applied to weeds grown in 35 °C growth chambers, 10 and 15 days after treatment.
When the control values of foliar herbicides were measured, the glyphosate isopropylamine treatments were the least effective at controlling A. patulus (Figure 9). Furthermore, the control values of the glyphosate isopropylamine treatments did not differ regardless of the temperature conditions. The control values of A. patulus in response to glufosinate-ammonium, bentazone, and mecoprop at the recommended dosages (and to bentazone at half the recommended dosage) were highest when the herbicides were applied to weeds growing in growth chambers at 30 and 35 °C. Nevertheless, the control values of A. patulus in response to glufosinate-ammonium and mecoprop at half the recommended dosages increased significantly with increasing growth chamber temperature. In particular, A. patulus was 100% controlled in response to glufosinate-ammonium, bentazone, and mecoprop, at the recommended dosages in growth chambers at 30 and 35 °C. In a previous study, Raphanus raphanistrum L. grown in controlled environmental chambers with night/day temperatures of 5/10, 15/20, and 20/25 °C was poorly controlled using 1200 g ai ha−1 of glufosinate at cooler temperatures (5/10 °C). By comparison, 100% mortality was achieved when the temperatures were 15/20 and 20/25 °C at the same dosage [26]. This suggests that the atmospheric temperature can enhance the efficacy of glufosinate. On the other hand, Anderson et al. [27] reported that relative humidity had the most significant effect on the phytotoxic action of glufosinate-ammonium. The uptake of bentazone was highest for velvetleaf plants grown at high temperatures and with high moisture contents compared with plants grown at high temperatures and in drought stress conditions. This suggests that plant epicuticular wax increased under drought stress conditions, which could have affected the absorption of bentazone [28]. Although this study examined how different temperature conditions affect the efficacy of herbicides in A. patulus, all experiments were carried out at constant levels of relative humidity. Therefore, future studies will be needed to confirm the effects of relative humidity on herbicide efficacy.

3.3. Herbicide Efficacy in A. patulus Grown in Greenhouse Conditions at Different Temperatures

In studies in greenhouse conditions, the temperature varied from day to night and is here presented as average temperature. The control values of A. patulus were measured after treatments with the soil-applied herbicides ethalfluralin, metolachlor, linuron, and alachlor under greenhouse conditions at different average temperatures (24, 26, and 28 °C) during herbicide treatment (Figure 10). When alachlor was applied at its recommended dosage, the control values were the same, regardless of the average temperature. On the other hand, when alachlor was applied at half its recommended dosage, the control values were highest when the weeds grew in greenhouses at an average temperature of 28 °C. The control values were similar when metolachlor or linuron was applied at the half and full recommended dosages, regardless of the average temperature. The control values of metolachlor were 100% at both 50% and 100% of the recommended dosage. When ethalfluralin was applied at 50% and 100% of the recommended dosage, the control values increased with increasing average greenhouse temperature. Although not the same herbicide as those tested this study, flumiclorac showed higher activity on C. album (sevenfold) and A. retroflexus (threefold) as the temperature increased from 10 °C to 40 °C [29]. This suggests that increased temperatures may increase herbicide uptake, translocation, and effectiveness.
Control values of A. patulus were also measured after treatments with the foliar herbicides glyphosate isopropylamine, glufosinate-ammonium, bentazone, and mecoprop under the same greenhouse conditions (Figure 11). When glyphosate isopropylamine and glufosinate-ammonium were applied at 50% and 100% of the recommended dosages, the control values increased with increasing average greenhouse temperature. On the other hand, at half its recommended dosage, the control values of glufosinate-ammonium were higher at 26 and 28 °C than at 24 °C. Similarly, when bentazone or mecoprop was applied at its full recommended dosages, the control values increased with increasing average greenhouse temperatures. Similar to the studies with glufosinate-ammonium, the control values were higher at 26 and 28 °C than at 24 °C when bentazone or mecoprop were applied at half their recommended dosages.
Previous studies with glufosinate indicate that its efficacy depends on various environmental conditions, the treated weed species, and application rates [30]. Temperature, in particular, appears to affect the efficacy of glufosinate. Anderson et al. [27] reported that temperature has a considerable effect on the activity of glufosinate in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and in green foxtail [Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv.]. An increased temperature was found to improve the efficacy of some amino acid inhibitors; for example, the efficacy of glyphosate was significantly higher when common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) was treated between noon and 18:00 p.m. [31]. As the temperature increased, the cuticle and plasma membrane fluidity increased in the leaves, resulting in improved herbicide uptake and translocation in Desmodium tortuosum (Sw.) DC., a C3 weed [32,33]. Similarly, Roundup Ready Soybean translocated more 14C-glyphosate to the meristematic tissues at 35 °C than at 15 °C, indicating potentially increased glyphosate injury at higher temperatures [34]. An increase in the temperature increased three-fold the efficacy of mesotrione in Xanthium strumarium and Abutilon theophrastii [32]. Although high temperatures tend to accelerate the absorption and translocation of most foliar herbicides, in some cases, high temperatures also may induce a rapid metabolism, which subsequently reduces herbicide activity in target plants [32,35]. Furthermore, other environmental factors, such as precipitation, wind, soil moisture, and atmospheric humidity, also influence the application of pesticides and their effectiveness [36,37]. This study suggests that environmental factors associated with the “greenhouse effect” may affect pesticide injury of crops and other non-target organisms.

4. Conclusions

This study examined how climate change affects the growth of A. patulus and the efficacy of soil-applied and foliar herbicides under different environmental conditions. Germination and growth of A. patulus was higher at 25 °C and 30 °C than at 15 and 20 °C. In different CO2 conditions, germination and growth of A. patulus was not significantly different between growth chambers with 400 and 700 ppm of CO2. Germination and growth of A. patulus plants planted at depths of 0.5, 1, and 2 cm were significantly greater than those of plants planted at 0, 5, and 7 cm. In addition, germination and growth of A. patulus plants grown under 0, 20, and 35% shade conditions were significantly greater than those of plants grown under 50, 75, and 90% shade conditions. Under growth conditions in which temperature remained constant, the efficacy of the soil-applied herbicides ethalfluralin, metolachlor, linuron, and alachlor in A. patulus was highest when the weeds were grown at high temperature. The efficacy of the foliar herbicides glufosinate-ammonium, bentazone, and mecoprop in A. patulus was also highest when the plant was grown at high temperature; in contrast, glyphosate isopropylamine showed similar efficacy regardless of the temperature. Under growth conditions in which the temperature changed from day to night, the efficacy of the soil-applied herbicides alachlor and linuron in A. patulus was highest when the weeds were grown at high temperature. On the other hand, the efficacy of the soil-applied herbicides metolachlor and linuron in A. patulus did not differ regardless of the temperature. The efficacy of the foliar herbicides glyphosate isopropylamine, glufosinate-ammonium, bentazone, and mecoprop in A. patulus was highest when the weeds were grown at high temperature. Although the herbicide efficacy varied depending on whether the weeds were grown at constant or alternating temperatures, herbicide efficacy was generally highest when the temperature was high.

Author Contributions

Data curation, H.-H.P., writing, review, and editing, D.-J.L. and Y.-I.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was carried out with the support of “Cooperative Research Program for Agriculture Science & Technology Development (Project No. PJ014835)” Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the help of Hee Kwon Kim, Byung Joon Jeong, Hyo Jin Lee, Se Ji Jang, Min Hee Park and Ok Gi Lee in plant cultivation.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Agronomy 11 01773 g001 550
Figure 1. Daily average temperature (A, 24 °C; B, 26 °C; C, 28 °C) on days after herbicide treatments in the greenhouse.
Figure 1. Daily average temperature (A, 24 °C; B, 26 °C; C, 28 °C) on days after herbicide treatments in the greenhouse.
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Agronomy 11 01773 g002 550
Figure 2. Germination rate (%) of A. patulus grown at different temperatures in growth chambers. Means within a figure followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
Figure 2. Germination rate (%) of A. patulus grown at different temperatures in growth chambers. Means within a figure followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
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Agronomy 11 01773 g003 550
Figure 3. Plant height, leaf number, leaf area, and shoot fresh weight of A. patulus grown at different temperatures in growth chambers. The parameters were measured 17 days after seeding. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
Figure 3. Plant height, leaf number, leaf area, and shoot fresh weight of A. patulus grown at different temperatures in growth chambers. The parameters were measured 17 days after seeding. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
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Figure 4. Germination rate (%) of A. patulus grown under 400 or 700 ppm CO2 in growth chambers. Means within a figure followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
Figure 4. Germination rate (%) of A. patulus grown under 400 or 700 ppm CO2 in growth chambers. Means within a figure followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
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Figure 5. Plant height, leaf number, leaf area, and shoot fresh weight of A. patulus grown under 400 or 700 ppm CO2 in growth chambers. The parameters were measured 17 days after seeding. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
Figure 5. Plant height, leaf number, leaf area, and shoot fresh weight of A. patulus grown under 400 or 700 ppm CO2 in growth chambers. The parameters were measured 17 days after seeding. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
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Agronomy 11 01773 g006 550
Figure 6. Visual rate (0–100, 100, complete death) of A. patulus in response to soil-applied herbicides (A. alachlor; B. metolachlor; C. ethalfluralin; D. linuron) at each recommendation rate under different temperatures of growth chamber.
Figure 6. Visual rate (0–100, 100, complete death) of A. patulus in response to soil-applied herbicides (A. alachlor; B. metolachlor; C. ethalfluralin; D. linuron) at each recommendation rate under different temperatures of growth chamber.
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Figure 7. Control value (%) of A. patulus in response to soil-applied herbicides (A. alachlor; B. metolachlor; C. ethalfluralin; D. linuron) at different growth chamber temperatures. HOR: Half of the recommended rate; RR: Recommended rate. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Error bars represent SE.
Figure 7. Control value (%) of A. patulus in response to soil-applied herbicides (A. alachlor; B. metolachlor; C. ethalfluralin; D. linuron) at different growth chamber temperatures. HOR: Half of the recommended rate; RR: Recommended rate. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Error bars represent SE.
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Agronomy 11 01773 g008 550
Figure 8. Visual rate (0–100, 100, complete death) of A. patulus in response to foliar herbicides (A. glyphosate isopropylamine; B. glufosinate-ammonium; C. bentazone; D. mecoprop) at each recommendation rate under different temperatures in a growth chamber.
Figure 8. Visual rate (0–100, 100, complete death) of A. patulus in response to foliar herbicides (A. glyphosate isopropylamine; B. glufosinate-ammonium; C. bentazone; D. mecoprop) at each recommendation rate under different temperatures in a growth chamber.
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Figure 9. Control value (%) of A. patulus in response to foliar herbicides (A. glyphosate isopropylamine; B. glufosinate-ammonium; C. bentazone; D. mecoprop) t different temperatures in a growth chamber. HOR: Half of the recommended rate; RR: Recommended rate. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Error bars represent SE.
Figure 9. Control value (%) of A. patulus in response to foliar herbicides (A. glyphosate isopropylamine; B. glufosinate-ammonium; C. bentazone; D. mecoprop) t different temperatures in a growth chamber. HOR: Half of the recommended rate; RR: Recommended rate. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Error bars represent SE.
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Figure 10. Control value (%) of A. patulus in response to soil-applied herbicides (A. alachlor; B. metolachlor; C. ethalfluralin; D. linuron) at different average temperatures in greenhouses. HOR: Half of the recommended rate; RR: Recommended rate. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Error bars represent SE.
Figure 10. Control value (%) of A. patulus in response to soil-applied herbicides (A. alachlor; B. metolachlor; C. ethalfluralin; D. linuron) at different average temperatures in greenhouses. HOR: Half of the recommended rate; RR: Recommended rate. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Error bars represent SE.
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Figure 11. Control value (%) of A. patulus in response to foliar herbicides (A. glyphosate isopropylamine; B. glufosinate-ammonium; C. bentazone; D. mecoprop) at different average temperatures in greenhouses. HOR: Half of the recommended rate; RR: Recommended rate. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Error bars represent SE.
Figure 11. Control value (%) of A. patulus in response to foliar herbicides (A. glyphosate isopropylamine; B. glufosinate-ammonium; C. bentazone; D. mecoprop) at different average temperatures in greenhouses. HOR: Half of the recommended rate; RR: Recommended rate. Means within bars followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Error bars represent SE.
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Table
Table 1. Active ingredients used in this study.
Table 1. Active ingredients used in this study.
Herbicide/Active IngredientMode of ActionFormulationApplication MethodDosage (g ai/ha)Spray Volume (L/ha)
Ethalfluralin 35.0%SRGIECSoil (3 DAWS)525, 10501000
Metolachlor 40.0%SSGIECSoil (3 DAWS)600, 12001000
Linuron 50.0%PIWPSoil (3 DAWS)375, 750150
Alachlor 43.7%SSGIECSoil (3 DAWS)435, 8701000
Glyphosate isopropylamine 41.0%AASILFoliar (14 DAWS)615, 1230800
Bentazone 40.0%PILFoliar (14 DAWS)600, 12001000
Mecoprop 50.0%AILFoliar (14 DAWS)1250, 25001500
Glufosinate ammonium 18.0%NMLFoliar (14 DAWS)270, 5401000
SRGI: seedling root growth inhibitor; SSGI: seedling shoot growth inhibitor; PI: photosynthesis inhibitor; AASI: amino acid synthesis inhibitor; AH: auxin inhibitor; NM: nitrogen metabolism; EC: Emulsifiable concentrates; WP: Wettable powder; L: Liquid; DAS: Days after weed seeding.
Table
Table 2. Germination rate and growth of A. patulus 10 days after seeding, grown from seeds planted at different depths in field conditions.
Table 2. Germination rate and growth of A. patulus 10 days after seeding, grown from seeds planted at different depths in field conditions.
Seeding Depth
(cm)		Germination Rate
(%)		Plant Height
(cm)		Leaf Number
(No./Plant)		Leaf Area
(mm2)		Shoot Fresh Weight
(mg/plant)
0.071.4 ab1.47 b5.67 a0.81 b80 c
0.590.5 a5.47 a8.00 a11.19 a560 b
1.061.9 bc4.40 a7.67 a15.01 a490 b
2.042.9 cd4.03 a7.00 a11.41 a530 b
3.019.0 de4.87 a8.00 a15.27 a780 a
5.019.0 de0.97 b3.00 b0.22 b30 c
7.014.3 e0.63 b2.67 b3.68 b20 c
Means within a column followed by the same superscripts are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
Table
Table 3. Germination rate and growth of A. patulus 10 days after seeding, grown from seeds planted at different shading degrees in field conditions.
Table 3. Germination rate and growth of A. patulus 10 days after seeding, grown from seeds planted at different shading degrees in field conditions.
Shade
(%)		Germination Rate
(%)		Plant Height
(cm)		Leaf Number
(No./plant)		Leaf Area
(mm2)		Shoot Fresh Weight
(mg/Plant)
066.7 b3.80 bc7.33 a7.08 ab340 a
2095.2 a4.80 ab7.67 a9.80 a380 a
3542.9 c6.20 a6.67 a7.07 ab460 a
5033.3 c2.65 cd4.33 b1.63 b60 b
7519.0 d0.93 de2.67 b0.02 b0 b
904.8 e0.00 e0.00 c0.00 b0 b
Means within a column followed by the same superscripts are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
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Park, H.-H.; Lee, D.-J.; Kuk, Y.-I. Effects of Various Environmental Conditions on the Growth of Amaranthus patulus Bertol. and Changes of Herbicide Efficacy Caused by Increasing Temperatures. Agronomy 2021, 11, 1773. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11091773

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Park H-H, Lee D-J, Kuk Y-I. Effects of Various Environmental Conditions on the Growth of Amaranthus patulus Bertol. and Changes of Herbicide Efficacy Caused by Increasing Temperatures. Agronomy. 2021; 11(9):1773. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11091773

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Park, Hyun-Hwa, Do-Jin Lee, and Yong-In Kuk. 2021. "Effects of Various Environmental Conditions on the Growth of Amaranthus patulus Bertol. and Changes of Herbicide Efficacy Caused by Increasing Temperatures" Agronomy 11, no. 9: 1773. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11091773

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