Impacts of Global Climate Change on Agricultural Production: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Global warming is one of the greatest threats to the social development of human beings. It is a typical example of global climate change, and has profoundly affected human production and life in various aspects. As the foundation of human existence, agricultural production is particularly vulnerable to climate change, which has altered environmental factors such as temperature, precipitation, and wind speed, and affected crop growth cycles, the frequency of extreme weather events, and the occurrence patterns of pests and diseases directly or indirectly, ultimately influencing crop yield and quality. This article reviews the latest research progress in this field, summarizes the impact of global climate change on agricultural production as well as the feedback mechanisms of agricultural activities on climate change, and proposes strategies for agricultural production to cope with global climate change. This paper aims to provide a scientific basis and suggestions for ensuring the sustainable development of agricultural production.

1. Introduction

Global climate change presents a significant challenge to the world today. Since 1850, the combined temperature of land and ocean has been increasing at 0.06 °C on average per decade, with the rate of warming more than three times faster than that since 1982, at approximately 0.20 °C per decade [1]. Over the past century, substantial greenhouse gas emissions, rapid population growth, and the combustion of fossil fuels have been identified as the primary drivers for global warming. In the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth Assessment Report, experts have pointed out that human activities are the main factors accounting for the rise in the Earth’s average surface temperature. They have led to global warming primarily through the emission of greenhouse gasses, resulting in an increase in global surface temperature ranging from 0.8 °C to 1.3 °C between 1850 and 2019 [2]. Furthermore, the long-standing reliance of contemporary society on fossil fuels is rapidly leading to global climate change. This trend has already triggered record-breaking droughts, wildfires, and floods, gradually manifesting its impact on communities worldwide. Continued greenhouse gas emissions will exacerbate the situation, and the future of the Earth largely depends on the choices made by the people of today [3].

Agricultural production, as the foundation for the survival and development of human beings, is greatly impacted by rapid global climate change [4,5,6]. Global warming not only leads to frequent extreme weather events, uneven precipitation, droughts, and floods, resulting in reduced crop yields, but also disrupts ecological balance and affects the prevention and control of crop pests and diseases [7,8]. Moreover, climate change has caused soil degradation and scarcity of land resources, thereby impacting the sustainable development of agricultural production [9]. To address this challenge, strong international cooperation and innovative measures are urgently needed. Through the concerted efforts of nations, substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and the promotion of sustainable technology development can be achieved [10].

In recent years, numerous scholars have extensively discussed and analyzed the impacts of global climate change on agriculture. Based on a search of the Web of Science database using the keywords “climate change” and “agricultural production,” this article summarizes the research outcomes of scholars in these two fields over the past five years (Figure 1). From 2019 to 2023, research on the relationship between climate change and agricultural production has shown an overall increasing trend. This reflects the academic community’s growing focus and investment in these two important areas. Bibi, F. et al. [11] reviewed the adverse effects of climate change on agricultural production, particularly the non-biological stresses such as drought, salinity, and temperature fluctuations, which cause damage to crop physiology and yield. Vatistas, C. et al. [12], through a systematic literature review, explored the sustainability and effects of Controlled-Environment Agriculture systems, especially greenhouses and vertical farms, on urban microclimates, as well as their role in local food production. Benitez-Alfonso, Y. et al. [13] reviewed the mitigation and adaptation measures taken by various countries to address climate change and proposed a roadmap to enhance crop production, achieve sustainable agricultural intensification, and improve climate resilience. Alam, A. [14] delved into the significant impacts of climate change on agriculture, a fundamental economic activity, particularly on agricultural productivity and livelihoods in developing and industrialized countries. The article underscores the potential threats of climate change to agriculture, including impacts on crop yields, water resources, and agricultural infrastructure, and proposes adaptation and mitigation strategies. Additionally, Prajapati, H.A. et al. [15] and Bibi, F. et al. [11] underscored, through their studies, the significant threat posed by climate change to crop yields, soil health, water resources, and regional food security.

While the aforementioned studies offer valuable insights, our research diverges in its focal points. This article primarily reviews the multidimensional impacts of climate change on agricultural production over the past five years, encompassing aspects such as crop yield, quality, the occurrences of extreme weather events, and changes in ecosystems. Additionally, we explore the feedback mechanisms of agricultural activities on climate change, involving greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, land use changes, and supply chain systems. Furthermore, this article discusses measures to address climate change, including the adoption of intelligent agricultural management technologies and water-saving irrigation systems, the promotion of weather-resistant crop varieties, strengthening soil conservation and improvement measures, and the implementation of innovative agricultural solutions, aimed at enhancing the adaptability and sustainability of agricultural production. Through in-depth research and analysis, this study aims to make a unique contribution to the field and provide a more comprehensive and profound understanding of the issues related to climate change in agriculture.

2. Direct Impacts of Global Climate Change on Agricultural Production

One of the most immediate and pressing challenges facing agricultural production is the direct impact of climate change on crop cycles, yield, and quality. These issues pose significant challenges to the stability, sustainability, and livelihoods of farmers.

2.1. Impact of Climate Change on Crop Cycles

Climate warming has led to a general reduction in the growing period of crops [16,17], accompanied by increased temperature fluctuations, which may result in inadequate nutrient accumulation in crops. Crop growth cycles are also influenced by changes in sunshine hours, and reduced sunlight will restrict crop growth [18]. Furthermore, climate change can affect the flowering and grain-filling periods of crops, resulting in varying degrees of frost damage and drought. Minoli, S. et al. [19] investigated the effects of climate change on crop growth cycles and the importance of adaptive management strategies through adjustments in planting dates and varieties from a global perspective. This study combined farmer decision models with biophysical crop models to simulate the adaptability of crop cycles for maize, rice, sorghum, soybeans, and wheat, as well as the impact of climate warming on crop yield. The experiments indicated that the adaptability of planting dates and varieties does not only affect the onset and completion of the growth periods, but also influences intermediate developmental stages, particularly those susceptible to high temperatures such as flowering. This study also noted that at latitudes of approximately 30 °S and above, the crop growth period is primarily driven by temperature. For spring crop types, planting dates typically depend on the onset of the warm season, while for winter crop types, planting times are determined by the onset of the cold season. Li, X. et al. [20] investigated the impacts of global climate change on the water cycle and crop growth, specifically focusing on winter wheat and summer maize growth under intensive irrigation management conditions in the North China Plain. This study utilized projections from multiple global climate models (GCMs) in CMIP5 and CMIP6 and employed an improved SWAT model to quantify the effects of future climate change on hydrology and crop production. The findings revealed that the leaf area index (LAI) dynamics for winter wheat and summer maize indicated an earlier onset and maturity trend for both crops in the future. This shift is associated with an increase in final yield and a corresponding rise in daily total biomass. Ahmad, Q.-A. et al. [21] used the Lund–Potsdam–Jena Managed Land hydrology–vegetation model, combined with ensemble data from eight GCMs, to study the impacts of climate change on the irrigation requirements and supply for major cereal crops in the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra river basins of South Asia. This study concluded that climate change will significantly shorten the growing season length for wheat and rice, altering the timing of crop growth stages.

2.2. Impact of Climate Change on Crop Yield

Global climate change has wide-ranging and complex effects on crop yield. Elevated temperatures increase evapotranspiration rates, exacerbating water evaporation and leading to soil dryness and water scarcity, which adversely affects crop yield. The following articles analyze the yields of four major cereal crops, maize, soybean, rice, and wheat, from a global perspective. Lesk, C. et al. [22] discussed the impact of temperature rise on the yields of major global cereal crops and the importance of temperature–humidity coupling in regulating crop responses to heat from a global perspective. They found that in some regions, reductions in precipitation and evapotranspiration, along with higher temperatures, result in a more pronounced decrease in the yields of crops such as maize and soybeans, indicating a compound heat–drought effect on crops. The study’s results suggest that climate change has not only affected crops through warming but also altered the driving factors of compound heat–humidity stress, thereby influencing crop sensitivity to heat. Jägermeyr, J. et al. [23] used state-of-the-art climate and crop models to predict changes in the yields of the aforementioned four major cereal crops. This study considered various drivers for climate change, including temperature rise, change in precipitation patterns, drought patterns, and increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations. The results indicate that the impact of climate change on agricultural productivity may manifest earlier than previously expected, with some high-latitude regions experiencing yield increase while low-latitude tropical regions possibly face yield decrease. Zhu, P. et al. [24] analyzed the impact of climate change on the yields of four major crops using various models and considering factors such as climate variables and precipitation. Their study results indicate that climate change significantly affects crop yield, and future climate change may result in a decrease in average crop yield globally, especially in warmer regions. Accordingly, adjustments and adaptations to agricultural systems will be necessary in response to climate change in the future. Rezaei, E.E. et al. [25] investigated the impact of climate change on the yields of wheat, maize, millet, sorghum, and rice on a global scale, focusing on their responses to rising temperatures, increased carbon dioxide concentrations, and changes in water availability. This study indicates that, under the most severe climate change scenarios, if no adaptive measures are taken, simulated crop yield losses range from 7% to 23%. The researchers also pointed out that irrigation and nutrient management were considered the most effective adaptive measures, but these required substantial investment and might not be feasible in areas with limited water resources. Therefore, based on the complex effect of climate change on crop yield, a comprehensive consideration of multiple factors will be needed for the effective management of regional and global food security.

2.3. Impact of Climate Change on Crop Quality

Global climate change also has a non-negligible impact on crop quality, in terms of both the nutritional content and taste of crops. A rise in CO₂ concentration and temperature may lead to a decrease in protein content and a decline in quality of staple crops [26,27]. As a result, consumer demand for certain agricultural products may be decreased, thereby affecting agricultural production and farmers’ income to some extent. Zhu, C. et al. [28] conducted a study on the impact of climate change on crop quality, particularly focusing on the nutritional value of rice in the regions of China and Japan. This study found that under a continuous increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentration, the protein, iron, and zinc content in rice showed a decreasing trend, as did the content of B1, B2, B5, and B9, except for vitamin E. This study further pointed out that the impact of climate change on vitamin content is closely related to the molecular nitrogen content, suggesting that such an impact may pose potential health risks to approximately 600 million people worldwide. In summary, this study has provided important insights into the impact of climate change on the nutritional values of crops and will definitely guide pertinent measures in the future. Zhang, D. et al. [29] explored the impact of future climate change on wheat yield and protein in northern China from a regional perspective, concluding that such impact is negative. Shamim, S. et al. [30] investigated field-area research at the Wheat Research Institute, Faisalabad, Pakistan, to investigate the impact of climate change on key components of wheat grains. This study revealed that changes in climatic conditions, particularly temperature fluctuations, drought stress, and high temperatures, significantly affect wheat protein, gluten percentage, and starch content, with variations observed in the response of different wheat varieties to climate change. Asseng, S. et al. [26] assessed the impact of climate change on wheat protein from a global perspective, drawing the conclusion that climate change may affect wheat quality through acting on the synthesis and accumulation of wheat protein. These research findings once again emphasize the impact of climate change on agricultural production and remind us that targeted strategies will be required to address the challenges of climate change.

3. Indirect Impacts of Global Climate Change on Agricultural Production

The ecosystem changes resulting from climate change, such as the increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, decline in soil fertility, water scarcity, and changes in the occurrence patterns of pests and diseases, have profound implications for agricultural production. These indirect impacts may lead to a decrease in agricultural productivity and even trigger food security issues.

3.1. Impact of Climate Change on Extreme Climate Events

Climate change has increased the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events [31], potentially leading to extensive crop damage or even complete crop failure. Moreover, extreme weather events may also disrupt agricultural infrastructure, increasing the cost of agricultural production [32]. Brazil, as one of the world’s largest agricultural producers, plays a crucial role on the global food supply chain through producing commodities such as soybeans, corn, and coffee. Carvalho, A.L. et al. [33], after unscrambling data of extreme weather events and crop loss, found that agricultural production in Brazil is severely affected by extreme weather events such as droughts, hailstorms, and frosts, with droughts found to have caused a significant decrease in national agricultural production, especially in vulnerable biological communities. This study also pointed out that the losses caused by these extreme weather events have not only affected small-scale farmers and domestic and international commodity markets, but also harmed the country’s economy as a result of adjusting farm subsidies and credit programs. Schmitt, J. et al. [34] analyzed the impact of extreme weather events such as frost, heatwaves, drought, and waterlogging on the yields of winter wheat, winter barley, winter rapeseed, and maize in German agriculture. The study indicates that extreme weather events, particularly drought, pose significant risks to agricultural production in Germany, resulting in substantial yield losses and economic damages. Lesk, C. et al. [35], by proposing and explaining three composite patterns of climate impact on crops and assessing historical and future trends in composite extreme events and their impact on crop yields, explored the global agricultural response to composite extreme weather events. Based on these theories and predictions, researchers have proposed new strategies aimed at limiting the risks posed by composite extreme events and climate change to crops and agriculture. Moreover, studies have found that due to the interconnectedness of food supply chains, the impacts of extreme weather events are also extensive and diverse, with the most severely affected sectors being fruits, vegetables, and livestock production. These impacts further extend to other non-food production sectors such as transportation services [36]. Therefore, strengthening the protection and restoration of agricultural ecosystems and enhancing the adaptability and resilience of agricultural production systems have become important directions in agricultural scientific research.

3.2. Impact of Climate Change on Soil

Climate change-induced temperature rises and alterations in precipitation patterns have not only disrupted the stability of soil organic carbon reserves [37], but also posed threats to soil fertility and biodiversity, thereby exacerbating soil salinization issues [38,39]. Additionally, extreme weather events such as floods and droughts can lead to soil fertility reduction, and elevated temperatures can accelerate the decomposition of soil organic matter, resulting in nutrient loss from the soil. These factors collectively contribute to reduced soil quality, thus affecting crop growth. Furtak, K. et al. [40] reviewed the impact of extreme weather events resulting from climate change on soil moisture, soil environment, and agricultural quality. The researchers pointed out that drought induced by climate change leads to a complex array of ecological effects, including reduced plant species diversity, decreased photosynthesis, inhibited root growth, increased soil oxygen, and changes in soil microbial community structure, by affecting plant and soil physicochemical parameters and soil microbial populations. Bonfante, A. et al. [41], through a case study in Italy, further elucidated the role of soil quality and soil health in exploring the impacts of soil degradation and climate change on biomass production in terms of material properties, structures, or processes. Their study found that changes in soil quality have significant effects on biomass production, so that climate change may influence biomass production by altering soil quality. Sünnemann, M. et al. [42], through structural equation modeling analysis, found that climate change, particularly temperature rise and dry conditions, negatively affect soil multifunctionality, which may reduce the soil’s capacity to support agricultural production. The research underscores the implementation of sustainable land use practices to maximize multiple ecosystem benefits while safeguarding soil and its functions. Therefore, future considerations should encompass a broader spectrum of soil functions, different soil types, and climatic conditions, as well as a deeper understanding of the driving factors behind soil multifunctionality, to provide more comprehensive and insightful information for policy decision-making.

3.3. Impact of Climate Change on Precipitation

Climate change affects the distribution and patterns of precipitation, thereby impacting agricultural water resource supplies. On the one hand, climate change alters atmospheric energy balance and water circulation, thus modifying precipitation patterns, especially the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events, which will have a potential widespread impact on agricultural production since precipitation is the primary source of agricultural water resources. Extreme precipitation events may negatively affect crop growth, soil quality, and agricultural productivity [43,44]. On the other hand, climate change leads to higher temperatures, accelerated water evaporation, and decreased soil moisture, and subsequently affects the water use efficiency of crops. Dai, A. et al. [45] indicated that global warming caused by greenhouse gasses may increase surface drought in the 21st century, which might be alleviated due to reductions in the evaporation demand as a result of the increased water use efficiency of plants under elevated CO₂ concentrations. Additionally, climate change results in an uneven distribution of water resources, spatially and temporally, with some regions experiencing water surplus while others facing water scarcity, posing challenges to the balance and stability of agricultural production. This argument has been confirmed by research by Cardoso Pereira, S. et al. [46], who found that climate change has led to an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events in the Iberian Peninsula. Furthermore, coupled with projected warming, this may exacerbate desertification in the southern region of the Iberian Peninsula and put pressure on water resources. Kyei-Mensah, C. et al. [47] investigated the relationship between precipitation variability and the crop yields of cocoyam, plantain, cassava, and tomato in the Worobong ecological region of Fanteakwa District, Ghana. The results indicated that precipitation variability was smaller in the major seasons compared to the minor seasons, but except for tomato yields, the yields of all major crops declined during the study period. Nugroho, S. et al. [48] evaluated the impact of extreme precipitation events on agricultural adaptation strategies, particularly in the Selo watershed of Tanah Datar Regency, West Sumatra Province, Indonesia. The researchers highlighted that extreme precipitation events could lead to crop failure, thereby threatening food security. Additionally, this study emphasized that when selecting adaptation strategies, consideration should be given not only to extreme precipitation factors but also to local topographic conditions. These studies collectively demonstrate the significant negative impacts of climate change on water resources and agricultural production in different regions, highlighting the need for effective adaptation measures tailored to local topographic conditions.

3.4. Impact of Climate Change on Pests and Diseases

Climate change has complex and multifaceted effects on the occurrence patterns of pests in crops by altering temperature. Temperature is a crucial influencing factor for insect development, and its fluctuations can accelerate pests’ consumption, development, mobility, and reproduction, thus enlarging their population sizes and geographical distribution ranges. This may lead to increased crop loss and negatively impact agricultural production [49]. Furthermore, climate change can alter the temporal and spatial conditions that are suitable for the proliferation of pests and pathogens. Research indicates that for most crops, both their yield and the risk of pathogen infection may increase in higher-latitude regions, while in tropical areas, both aspects may rise at a low degree or even decrease [50]. Singh, B.K. et al. [51] showed that climate change has not only increased the frequency and severity of pest and pathogen occurrence, but also expanded their transmission range, bringing uncommon pests and pathogens to new environments and thereby adversely affecting agricultural production. Additionally, climate change may result in an increase in the number of pests and pathogens, damaging crop growth and development. Wang, C. et al. [52] quantitatively analyzed the change in pest occurrence rates in China and their response to climate change using a Bayesian hierarchical model, further exploring its implications for agricultural production. The results indicate a significant correlation between the occurrence rates and temperature-related factors, night-time temperatures, and precipitation. Furthermore, climate change has raised the occurrence rate by approximately 3%, with night-time warming having a 50% greater contribution than day-time warming. Subedi, B. et al. [53], through a review of relevant studies, highlight the multifaceted impacts of temperature rise on pests and diseases, including mismatches in time and space, mismatches in body size, increased overwintering survival rates, expanded geographical distribution ranges, and elevated disease outbreak frequencies. The researchers emphasize that under the backdrop of climate change, agricultural pests pose significant threats to food security, necessitating the implementation of effective management strategies to address this issue. Therefore, it is imperative for agricultural producers to implement a series of effective measures to protect crops from the harm of pests and diseases, ensuring the normal growth and stable yields of crops.

4. Feedback Mechanisms of Agricultural Activities on Climate Change

As an integral component of global economic and social development, agriculture not only provides us with food and raw materials but also plays a dual role in global climate change. It serves as both a major source of greenhouse gas emissions and a potential domain for mitigating climate change. Through the content covered in the preceding chapters, we have gained an understanding of the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on agricultural production. Against this backdrop, delving into the feedback mechanisms of agricultural activities on climate change becomes particularly crucial. This chapter aims to explore these mechanisms, with a special focus on three key aspects: greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation and land use changes, and supply chain systems (Figure 2). By comprehensively analyzing these aspects, we can better understand the role of agricultural activities in climate change, thus providing important insights for future sustainable development strategies.

4.1. Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Agricultural production is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, particularly of CO₂, methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O), which exacerbate global warming [54,55]. Firstly, enteric fermentation in livestock is one of the major sources of CH₄ emissions. Ruminant animals such as cattle and sheep harbor microorganisms in their digestive tracts that decompose food and produce CH₄ during digestion. This CH₄ is then emitted into the atmosphere through belching and flatulence. According to data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, livestock contributes to 14.5% of the total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions annually, playing a significant role in climate change. Among them, enteric fermentation in ruminant animals accounts for 39% of livestock emissions [56]. Secondly, manure management in livestock farming is also a significant source of CH₄ and N₂O. In intensive farming environments, manure is typically centrally managed, stored in pits or composting yards [57]. Under anaerobic conditions, these manures decompose, releasing substantial amounts of CH₄ and N₂O. Additionally, rice cultivation is another important source of CH₄. The flooded conditions of rice paddies create anaerobic environments conducive to the growth and activity of methane-producing bacteria, resulting in significant CH₄ emissions. Studies have shown that flooded rice paddies are a major source of CH₄ emissions, accounting for approximately 11% of global CH₄ emissions, and the transplanting and variety of rice significantly influence CH₄ emissions [58,59]. Prolonged flooding not only affects soil oxygen content but also alters the structure of soil microbial communities, promoting the activity of anaerobic microbes, thereby increasing CH₄ generation and release.

Furthermore, in modern agriculture, while the extensive use of fertilizers is a vital means of increasing crop yields, the production and application of fertilizers also result in greenhouse gas emissions. During fertilizer production, significant quantities of CO₂ are generated due to the reliance on fossil fuels as energy sources, making this gas one of the primary drivers of global warming. In the process of fertilizer application, nitrogen fertilizers, a crucial component of fertilizers essential for ensuring food security, play a pivotal role [60]. However, soil microorganisms undergo nitrification and denitrification processes under the influence of nitrogen fertilizers, leading to the production of N₂O. N₂O is an extremely potent greenhouse gas, with a global warming potential (GWP) 283 times that of CO₂ [61]. This implies that the climate impact of an equivalent amount of N₂O far exceeds that of CO₂. In cases of excessive nitrogen fertilizer application, the emission of N₂O significantly increases, causing severe impacts on the atmospheric environment.

4.2. Deforestation and Land Use Change

Deforestation and land use change are crucial aspects of agricultural activities affecting climate change. Large-scale deforestation is often carried out to expand agricultural land. Winkler, K. et al. [62] found through their research that approximately one-third of the global land area experienced changes between 1960 and 2019, which is four times the extent estimated by previous long-term land change assessments. This study also revealed geographically diverse processes of land use change, including afforestation and agricultural abandonment in the northern hemisphere, and deforestation and agricultural expansion in the southern hemisphere. This not only diminishes the forest’s capacity as a carbon sink but also significantly increases the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere. Trees and other vegetation in forests absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and store it in biomass and soil. When these forests are cleared, the stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere as CO₂, exacerbating global warming. Barati, A.A. et al. [63] explored the interaction between land use/cover change and climate change globally from 1966 to 2015 and proposed methods to mitigate environmental risks and the effects of global warming. This research found that changes in agricultural and pasture land directly and indirectly affect CO₂ emissions. Specifically, the direct impact of pasture land change on CO₂ is positive, while the indirect impact is negative. Moreover, deforestation indirectly increases CO₂ emissions. Researchers have also pointed out that a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved by improving land management and reducing land use change, thereby mitigating environmental risks and the effects of global warming. Deforestation not only directly increases CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere by reducing forest cover but also indirectly contributes to land degradation by altering land use, leading to soil degradation. The ability of soil to store organic carbon is a critical function, playing a vital role in climate regulation [64,65]. Healthy soil structure can effectively sequester carbon, but when soil is degraded, stored organic carbon is released, further increasing greenhouse gas emissions. As the largest carbon sink on land, soil stores more carbon than all biomass and the atmosphere combined. When land degrades, carbon and N₂O stored in the soil are released into the atmosphere, making land degradation a major driver of climate change.

4.3. Supply Chain

The feedback mechanism of agricultural activities on climate change involves multiple aspects of the supply chain, with cold chain systems and food waste being two critical factors. On one hand, cold chain systems play a crucial role in the agricultural product supply chain [66]. A cold chain system refers to a logistics network where agricultural products remain at a low temperature throughout the entire process from production to consumption, including refrigeration, freezing, preservation, storage, and transportation [67]. This system ensures the freshness and safety of perishable agricultural products. However, operating a cold chain system requires a significant amount of energy, primarily electricity and fuel [68]. The entire cold chain system involves multiple stages, long processes, widespread geographical distribution, and high timeliness requirements [69]. Thus, continuously operating cold chain equipment such as refrigerated trucks, cold storage, and refrigerators is necessary. The energy consumption during the long-distance transportation and prolonged storage of food in refrigerated conditions is particularly high within the supply chain [70]. This high energy consumption directly leads to substantial greenhouse gas emissions, particularly CO₂ and fluorocarbon refrigerants. Gao, E. et al. [71] provided an overview of the current status and progress in refrigerant substitution in key cold chain equipment in China. The researchers pointed out that the refrigerant substitution in China’s cold chain industry is slower than in the air conditioning industry. Despite policy incentives, controlled refrigerants still dominate the market. However, the emissions of these refrigerants, due to their high global warming potential and persistence in the atmosphere, exacerbate the greenhouse effect, leading to global temperature imbalances [72]. Therefore, while cold chain systems ensure the quality and safety of agricultural products, they inevitably have negative impacts on climate change.

On the other hand, food waste is a significant issue within the agricultural supply chain and has a considerable impact on climate change [73]. Globally, food waste is a pervasive and serious problem. It is estimated that approximately one-third of food produced globally is wasted annually, leading to greenhouse gas emissions [74,75]. This wasted food encompasses losses occurring at various stages including production, harvesting, processing, transportation, storage, and consumption. However, when this discarded food is subjected to landfill or incineration processes, it produces greenhouse gasses such as CH₄ and CO₂, further exacerbating climate change [76,77]. Bernstad Saraiva Schott, A. et al. [78] utilized the life-cycle assessment method to compare the current waste treatment methods of anaerobic digestion or incineration of food waste with a hypothetical scenario where avoidable food waste is eliminated, and only unavoidable food waste is subjected to anaerobic digestion or incineration. This study demonstrated that although modern food waste treatment methods can reduce the GWP by recovering nutrients and energy, preventing the generation of food waste offers significantly greater benefits to GWP than incineration and anaerobic digestion. In summary, the high energy consumption of cold chain systems and the resource waste and greenhouse gas emissions resulting from food waste are significant drivers of climate change.

5. Strategies for Mitigating Global Climate Change in Agricultural Production

In response to the challenges posed by global climate change, agricultural production needs to implement a comprehensive range of measures. These measures can be categorized into short-term, mid-term, and long-term strategies, as illustrated in Figure 3. This includes adopting climate-smart agricultural technologies and water-saving irrigation systems and promoting climate-resilient crop varieties, while also enhancing soil conservation and improvement practices and advocating for carbon-neutral agricultural practices. To further enhance the adaptability and sustainability of agriculture, innovative agricultural solutions are necessary, such as semi-enclosed greenhouses, vertical farming, soilless cultivation, and hydroponics. These innovative technologies can significantly improve resource utilization efficiency and productivity. Additionally, viable solutions for water reuse and recycling are crucial for alleviating water shortages, and sustainable fertilizer production solutions can help reduce environmental pollution. Finally, creating a sustainable closed-loop system by integrating agricultural production, waste treatment, and resource recycling can achieve comprehensive sustainable agricultural development. Furthermore, developing adaptive management strategies and strengthening international cooperation are also essential. These initiatives will contribute to the stability, sustainability, and adaptability of agricultural production, enabling better resilience to the challenges posed by climate change.

5.1. Smart Agriculture Management Technologies and Water-Saving Irrigation Systems

Intelligent agricultural management technologies and water-saving irrigation systems can enhance agricultural productivity and flexibility in response to climate change. Advanced agricultural technologies such as precision agriculture, remote sensing, and unmanned aerial vehicle monitoring allow for better management of crop growth and irrigation, thereby increasing crop yield and quality. The deep drainage estimation model for irrigated farmland constructed by Yu, H. et al. [79], based on satellite observations and deep neural networks, can assist in assessing the effectiveness of various water-saving irrigation technologies and promoting water-saving agricultural practices. Water-saving irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and micro-sprinkler irrigation help reduce water usage and ensure crop growth under drought and heat conditions. The plastic film drip irrigation system used in a study by Wang, C. et al. [80] is a water-saving irrigation technology that optimizes irrigation management and improves the efficiency of irrigation water use, addressing the uneven distribution and scarcity of water resources.

5.2. Weather-Resistant Crop Varieties

Promoting resilient crop varieties is one of the key measures to address climate change. Liu, K. et al. [81] demonstrated that altering planting times and adopting flood-tolerant crop varieties could reduce yield loss by 18%. Resilient crop varieties can maintain good growth and yield under adverse climate conditions, thereby mitigating the impact of climate change on agricultural production. Accordingly, it will become a research direction to develop new resilient crop varieties with technologies such as gene editing. Pixley, K.V. et al. [82] highlighted that gene editing technology can offer potential benefits for improving food security in low-income and middle-income countries through precisely modifying crop genomes. These technologies enable small farmers to have access to improved varieties, reduce seed production cost, and enhance their crops’ ability to resist diseases and drought.

5.3. Soil Conservation and Improvement

Strengthening soil conservation and improvement can reduce soil carbon emissions, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions. For example, implementing proper crop rotation and adopting diverse planting systems can increase soil organic carbon storage and enhance soil health, thereby bolstering ecosystem stability [83]. Promoting carbon-neutral agricultural practices, such as organic farming and sustainable agriculture, aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, foster soil carbon sequestration, and enhance ecosystem health. Li, L. et al. [84], based on the NCAR Community Earth System Model, forecasted the mitigating effect of China’s carbon neutrality on global warming. China has committed to reaching its peak of carbon emissions by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2060, with the ultimate goal of alleviating global warming.

5.4. Innovative Agricultural Solutions

Innovative agricultural solutions such as semi-closed greenhouses, vertical farming, soilless cultivation, and hydroponics stabilize environmental conditions, conserve resources, and extend growing seasons, effectively reducing the uncertainty of climate change on crops.

Semi-closed greenhouses optimize environmental factors like temperature, humidity, and CO₂ concentration to provide ideal growing conditions, thus increasing crop yields and minimizing the impact of external climate fluctuations on crops, ensuring agricultural production stability [85]. Hu, G. et al. [86] proposed a data-driven robust model predictive control framework for managing semi-closed renewable energy-driven greenhouses. This control framework enhances crop production sustainability while reducing energy consumption, potentially improving energy efficiency and decreasing the demand for renewable energy.

Vertical farming, as a novel plant production system, controls growth factors precisely in multi-tier indoor environments, achieving water and nutrient conservation, efficient land use, and year-round production of high-yield fresh produce. It also offers sustainable solutions for reducing pesticide usage and addressing climate change challenges [87,88]. Yalçın, R.A. et al. [89] conducted numerical analysis-based simulations to study the use of fluorescent coatings to enhance crop production in vertical farms. They developed a solar lighting design utilizing fluorescent reflectors as part of the lighting system to improve photosynthetic radiation on the racks of vertical farms. These reflectors, made of optical glass embedded with fluorescent pigments, are integrated into the lighting distribution system to enhance spatial light distribution and alter solar spectra, thereby increasing crop yields.

Soilless cultivation systems improve water resource utilization efficiency, mitigate soil degradation issues, and precisely control nutrient provision, ensuring healthy crop growth. Hydroponic systems utilize optimized space and efficient nutrient absorption mechanisms, facilitating rapid growth and reducing pesticide usage. The reviews by Barrett, G.E. et al. [90] and Gebreegziher, W.G. [91] collectively address the potential and challenges of soilless cultivation technology in achieving environmental sustainability and enhancing crop production efficiency. Researchers emphasize that soilless cultivation systems, as alternative methods to traditional soil cultivation, offer advantages such as water conservation, reduced chemical fertilizer usage, increased crop yield and quality, and minimized environmental impacts. However, the practical application of soilless cultivation technology faces challenges, including high initial investment costs, energy requirements, complexity of system management, and ensuring crop health and nutrient supply.

These innovative technologies not only enhance food security by improving resource utilization efficiency and productivity, thereby alleviating food shortages caused by climate change, but also promote sustainable development and reduce the negative environmental impacts of agricultural production. By creating more controlled and stable production environments, these technologies enhance agricultural adaptability, drive technological advancements, and facilitate industrial upgrades in related fields, leading to greater economic and social benefits.

5.5. Feasible Solutions for Sustainable Fertilizer Production

Traditional fertilizer production and usage often entail significant greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollution. In contrast, sustainable fertilizer production technologies effectively reduce carbon footprints by optimizing production processes and material selection. For instance, the utilization of bio-fertilizers and organic fertilizers involves recycling agricultural waste and organic matter, thereby improving resource efficiency and material recyclability while reducing fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing soil fertility [92]. Advanced synthetic biology techniques and microbial fertilizers significantly enhance nutrient utilization efficiency, reduce fertilizer runoff and water pollution, and promote soil improvement, thereby increasing crop yields [93,94,95]. Moreover, sustainable fertilizer production includes green chemical processes and intelligent fertilization technologies. Green chemical processes reduce reliance on fossil fuels in chemical and fuel production, thereby minimizing the environmental impact of chemical synthesis and manufacturing [96]. Intelligent fertilization technologies maximize fertilizer efficiency and minimize environmental loads through precise fertilization and release control, thus reducing excess fertilizer usage [97]. These innovative solutions not only increase crop yields and quality and improve the resilience of agricultural systems but also support agricultural sustainability and climate change mitigation by reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Overall, sustainable fertilizer production technologies play an irreplaceable role in ensuring food security, protecting the ecological environment, and promoting agricultural sustainability.

5.6. Possible Solutions for Water Reuse and Recycling

Possible solutions for water reuse and recycling play a significant and far-reaching role in mitigating the impact of climate change on agricultural production. By optimizing water resource management, these solutions effectively reduce agricultural water demand, alleviating water scarcity issues resulting from climate change. For instance, technologies like drip irrigation and rainwater-harvesting systems in farmland irrigation systems can significantly enhance water use efficiency, minimize wastage, and ensure crops receive adequate water even under drought conditions [98,99,100]. Wastewater regeneration and treatment technologies can convert domestic and industrial wastewater into irrigation water, reducing reliance on freshwater resources and decreasing environmental pollution from wastewater discharge [101,102,103]. Water reuse strategies not only help maintain soil moisture, elevate soil fertility levels, and provide nutrients for crops to promote growth but also enhance the health and stability of agricultural ecosystems through recycling and pollution reduction [104,105]. Overall, water reuse and recycling schemes not only enhance the efficiency and sustainability of agricultural production but also play a pivotal role in addressing climate change, environmental protection, and ensuring food security. Therefore, the promotion and application of these water resource management technologies represent effective pathways towards achieving sustainable agricultural development and tackling the challenges of climate change.

5.7. Establishing Sustainable Closed-Loop Systems

The creation of sustainable closed-loop systems aims to achieve the efficient recycling of resources while minimizing waste generation and environmental pollution. By integrating waste management, energy production, and agricultural production, closed-loop systems can convert agricultural waste into valuable resources, reduce reliance on fossil fuels and chemical fertilizers, and lower greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, within closed-loop systems, irrigation water can be effectively collected and reused, providing crops with adequate protection from external weather conditions. Since plants grow in controlled environments without the need for herbicides, fertilizers, and pesticides, food safety is enhanced, and the environmental impact of chemicals is reduced [106]. Research on closed-loop ecosystems worldwide indicates that this comprehensive management approach not only enhances resource efficiency but also improves the sustainability of agricultural production, providing essential data and technological support for future space exploration [107,108]. In conclusion, the creation of sustainable closed-loop systems offers innovative solutions for addressing climate change and promoting agricultural sustainability, with significant ecological and economic implications.

5.8. Adaptive Management Strategies

Developing adaptive management strategies involves disaster risk management, insurance systems, and climate information services to address the hazards and risks brought by climate change [109]. Strengthening international cooperation to share best practices and experiences in climate change and agricultural adaptation accelerates the adaptation and transformation of global agricultural systems. The comprehensive assessment framework and evaluation methods mentioned by Jennings, S. et al. [110] in the article can serve as essential reference tools for other countries and regions facing similar challenges. Based on the aforementioned framework and methods, the impact of climate change on agricultural production can be systematically assessed, and these assessment results are significant in formulating adaptation and mitigation measures for combating climate change worldwide. By understanding the actual impact of climate change on agricultural production, policymakers can more effectively develop corresponding policies and action plans to address the continually changing climate environment, safeguard food security, maintain farmers’ livelihoods, and promote the sustainable development of agriculture.

6. Conclusions and Prospects

Global climate change has wide-ranging and profound impacts on agricultural production, including both direct effects such as changes in crop growth cycles, yields, and quality, and indirect effects such as increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, fluctuations in soil fertility, alterations in precipitation patterns, and shifts in the occurrence patterns of pests and diseases. Furthermore, agricultural activities themselves contribute to climate change through pathways such as greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, land use changes, and supply chains, thus creating feedback loops. Given these multidimensional interactions, comprehensive strategies must be adopted to address the challenges posed by climate change. This entails the adoption of intelligent agricultural management techniques and water-saving irrigation systems, the promotion of climate-resilient crop varieties, the enhancement of soil conservation and improvement measures, the implementation of innovative agricultural and sustainable fertilizer production schemes, as well as feasible solutions for water reuse and recycling. By creating sustainable closed-loop systems and formulating adaptive management strategies, the resilience of agricultural production to climate change can be significantly enhanced. However, current research still has certain limitations, such as insufficient innovation in research methods and technologies, and limited research subjects and regions. Moreover, to efficiently implement the above measures, joint efforts and collaboration among governments, research institutions, farmers, and other stakeholders will be needed. Therefore, future research should further explore the specific acting mechanisms of climate change on agricultural production, propose more targeted response strategies and technical means. Additionally, the impact of climate change on agricultural ecosystems and their service functions is un-neglectable in guaranteeing the sustainable development of global agricultural production.