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Article

Effect of Water Deficit on Secondary Metabolites and Nutrient Content on Forage Sorghum

by
Tayna Lemos de Oliveira Cunha
1,†,
Dthenifer Cordeiro Santana
1,
Gustavo de Faria Theodoro
1,*,
Ana Carina da Silva Cândido Seron
1,
Fernando França da Cunha
2,
Paulo Eduardo Teodoro
1,
Larissa Pereira Ribeiro Teodoro
1,
Luis Carlos Vinhas Ítavo
1,
Cid Naudi Silva Campos
1,
Manoel Gustavo Paranhos da Silva
1 and
Alejandro Soares Montaño
1
1
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science (FAMEZ), Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Campo Grande 79070-900, MS, Brazil
2
Department of Agricultural Engineering (DEA), Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa 36570-900, MG, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
This paper is a part of the M.Sc. Thesis of Tayna Lemos de Oliveira Cunha, presented at Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Campo Grande, MS, Brazil.
Agronomy 2024, 14(9), 2046; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14092046 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 21 June 2024 / Revised: 2 August 2024 / Accepted: 10 August 2024 / Published: 7 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safe and Efficient Utilization of Water and Fertilizer in Crops)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Agronomic properties are more likely to be impacted by water deficits that affect the nutrient uptake and production of secondary metabolites based on their timing and intensity. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of the water deficit on the nutritional quality of forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) hybrids. For that purpose, a factorial, completely randomized experiment was conducted by considering three forage sorghum hybrids (AGRI 002-E, BREVANT SS318, and BRS 658) and two levels of evapotranspiration water replacement (50% and 100% of ETc). Parameters relating to water consumption, secondary metabolites (isoflavones daidzein, daidzin, genistein, and genistin), leaf nutrients (P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, and Zn), and bromatological attributes (dry matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, and mineral material) were evaluated at the end of the crop cycle. Isoflavone levels differed between the hybrids and were highest in water-deficient sorghum. There was a significant interaction between the factors only for the daidzin. The leaf content of the other compounds was influenced either by hybrids (genistein) or by the replacement of evapotranspired water levels (daidzein). The leaf content of P and S was influenced by the interaction between the factors, while the levels of K, Ca, and Mg were influenced by the effect of a single factor. The leaf contents of Mn and Zn were not influenced by the treatments. There was a difference between the hybrids for dry mass and crude protein contents, and hybrids x water deficit was only significant for dry mass. The hybrids Brevant SS318 and BRS 658 had the highest crude protein. The presented results are novel and demonstrate that water deficits can significantly affect the levels of secondary metabolites and the nutritional quality of forage sorghum, depending on the hybrid. The mentioned indices are important parameters for evaluating the nutritional quality and development of agricultural crops, particularly in response to adverse environmental conditions such as water stress.

1. Introduction

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (Moench) L.) serves as a food source for over 500 million people across 98 countries [1]. It is known for its high photosynthetic efficiency and ability to produce substantial biomass. Its applications range from animal feed to biofuel production, underscoring its significant relevance and versatility [2]. Forage sorghum silage is used to increase yield and maintain adequate animal feed when there is a forage scarcity [3].
Various environmental conditions, including drought, can significantly impact the growth and yield of crops [4]. Under water deficit conditions, plants show numerous morphological, physiological, and biochemical changes [5], although the plant has adaptive morphophysiological mechanisms that contribute to its tolerance to this stress [6]. Therefore, understanding these adaptations is fundamental to developing effective agricultural management and genetic improvement strategies aimed at increasing the yield and resilience of sorghum crops to water deficits.
Cultivating sorghum requires fewer agricultural inputs compared to other crops, making it particularly suitable for farmers with limited resources [7]. However, attributing in a generalized manner that sorghum also requires less water throughout its cycle and that there will be no damage under water deficit conditions is risky, given the significant morphological diversity within the species and its diverse uses [1]. Galicia-Juárez et al. [8] subjected sorghum plants to water stress and found a 63% reduction in the functioning of the photosynthetic apparatus, leading to a reduction in metabolism and wilting. Montaño et al. [9] verified that water deficit reduced the dry mass production by 37% of forage sorghum hybrids, and its influence on the biochemistry and nutritional composition of plants has not yet been evaluated.
The nutritional composition of sorghum is very similar to that of other cereals regarding the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, non-starch polysaccharide, B vitamin, fat-soluble vitamins, micronutrients, macronutrients, carotenoids, and polyphenols [7]. Water deficit conditions alter the accumulation of phenolic compounds in sorghum [10], including increasing the flavonoid content [11]. Such compounds are responsible for their high antioxidant activity, which is able to reduce the effects of free radicals [12,13]. Flavonoids, a subgroup of phenolic compounds, are crucial contributors to the health-promoting properties of sorghum. Besides phenolics, sorghum grains also have a range of bioactive constituents, reinforcing their capacity as functional ingredients [14].
Regarded as a vital source of nutrients, sorghum is particularly rich in calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) [15]. The content of these nutrients can be influenced by the amount available in the soil for plant uptake, which can be increased by proper crop management, especially through fertilization. Sorghum quality is also influenced by the fiber components, which are considered very important in characterizing the nutritional value of forage. The content of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) is directly related to consumption limitations [16]. The mentioned indices are important parameters for evaluating the nutritional quality and development of agricultural crops, particularly in response to adverse environmental conditions such as water stress. Different genotypes of the same species can have different responses when subjected to water stress [17]. Furthermore, sorghum bran has high contents of crude protein, fat, fiber, and ashes [18]. Nutrient and isoflavone levels help to understand how plants respond to environmental changes, especially water stress, and to identify variations in the nutritional composition of genotypes.
Our hypothesis is that various sorghum hybrids do not experience alterations in their secondary metabolite composition and nutrient content under conditions of water scarcity. The aim of this study was to assess how water deficits affect the components of shoot biomass and the nutritional quality of forage sorghum hybrids.
This paper delivers a comprehensive analysis derived from the Master’s thesis by Cunha [19].

2. Materials and Methods

The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse at the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, located in Campo Grande, State of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. The experimental design used was a randomized complete block design in a 3 × 2 factorial scheme with four replications. The experiment consisted of three forage sorghum hybrids (AGRI 002-E, BREVANT SS318, and BRS 658) and two evapotranspiration water replacement levels (50% and 100% of ETc). Climate data inside the greenhouse was collected with a portable thermohygrometer, and during the period of the experiment, the mean temperature was 29.9 (±2.9) °C, and the mean relative humidity was 65.4 (±6.6)%.
Before the start of the experiment, soil samples were collected for physicochemical properties, and the results are as follows: pH: 5.33; OM (g kg−1): 34.55; Ca (cmolc dm−3): 6.05; Mg (cmolc dm−3): 1.20; K (cmolc dm−3): 0.22; P (mg dm−3): 1.33; H + Al (cmolc dm−3): 4.6; Sand (g kg−1): 260; Silt (g kg−1): 130; Clay (g kg−1): 610; field capacity (g g−1): 0.3001; wilting point (g g−1): 0.2278. Afterward, the 5 mm sieved soil was fertigated with optimized doses of fertilizer for sorghum. At sowing, the soil was fertilized with 53.5 mg dm−3 of sulfammo MeTA (29% N, 8% S, 2% Mg, 4% Ca), 214.3 mg dm−3 of simple super phosphate (21% P2O5, 18% Ca), and 5 mg dm−3 of boron 10 (10% B), according to Montaño et al. [9]. Liming was not necessary. After applying the pre-sowing fertilizer, eight cubic decimeters of soil were placed in each pot, and their mass was homogenized using a digital scale. All the pots (15.75 × 11.81 in) had the same volume and mass of soil inside, were coded according to the treatment, and were placed in the greenhouse.
Eight seeds of each sorghum hybrid were sown in each pot at a depth of approximately 1 cm. The uniform thinning in all the pots was carried out on the 13th day after emergence (DAE), aiming at keeping one plant per pot [9]. At the V6 stage (six expanded leaves), plants were fertilized with 159.09 mg dm−3 of urea (44% N). Pests and diseases were monitored, but it was not necessary to employ any control measures.
Water evapotranspiration was replaced by measuring crop evapotranspiration (ETc), which in turn was determined using the field capacity by drainage time method [20,21]. Seven drainage lysimeters were used to determine field capacity by the drainage time and to adjust the ETc replacement method. A sorghum hybrid was grown in each drainage lysimeter, sown on the same day and under the same conditions as the experimental units.
Every morning, the seven lysimeters were irrigated with 120% of the mean water consumption of the previous day (crop evapotranspiration). The 20% adjustment resulted in the occurrence of drainage, which indicated the limit of field capacity. Irrigation was then carried out on the pots, which were adjusted to receive the replacement levels described in the treatments. The methodologies described by [22] were used to determine crop evapotranspiration according to the following equation:
E T c i − 1 = L A i − 1 − L P i
wherein
E T c i − 1 = Crop evapotranspiration on day i − 1 (mm);
L A i − 1 = Water applied to the lysimeters on day i − 1 (mm); and
L P i = Mean percolated water in the lysimeters measured on day i (mm).
The water deficit treatment was attributed to the replenishment of 50% of ETc, as only half of the evapotranspired water was replaced. At the end of the crop cycle, the sorghum was harvested at 96 DAE by cutting the stalk at the first node above the ground [9]. The samples were ground and packed in properly identified plastic containers for analysis of secondary metabolites and chemical–bromatological variables. The samples were dried for 72 h in a drying oven at 65 °C.
To remove the isoflavones, the following procedures were performed according to Oliveira et al. [23], which extracted the isoflavones: daidzein (D1), daidzin (D2), genistein (G1), and genistin (G2). All the solvents used in the chromatographic analysis were HPLC. Phosphorus content was determined via the vanadate yellow spectrophotometry method, in which H2PO4− reacts with MoO42− and NO32− to produce a yellow-colored complex with an absorption peak at 420 nm. The sulfur content was measured based on the formation of a white precipitate when SO42− reacts with Ba2+. Both analyses utilized a UV–VIS spectrophotometer, and analytical curves were created to quantify P and S levels in the digested extract. The levels of K, Ca, Mg, Mn, and Zn in the extracts were measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometry, employing an atomic absorption device with an air-acetylene flame and hollow cathode lamps specific to each element [24].
Bromatological analyses were carried out at the Applied Nutrition Laboratory of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics (FAMEZ) of the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS). The following variables were determined: dry matter percentage (DM), mineral matter (MM), ether extract (EE), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and acid detergent fiber (ADF). The crude protein (CP) content was calculated by determining the total nitrogen content using the Kjeldahl method and multiplying it by a factor of 6.25. NDF content was determined using the alternative method used by Lacerda et al. [25]. Afterwards, in vitro digestibility was assessed. All samples were analyzed for dry matter (DM) using the INCT-CA G-003/1 method; crude protein (CP) through the INCT-CA N-001/1 method; and neutral detergent insoluble fiber (NDF) by the INCT-CA F002/1 method, according to the procedures recommended by Detmann et al. [26].
Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the F test at a significance level of 0.05. When significant, the interactions between sorghum hybrids and water replacement levels were unfolded. The Bartlett and Shapiro–Wilk tests were used to verify the assumptions of homogeneity of variances and normality, respectively, using a 0.05 significance level for both. Means were compared using the Tukey test at a 0.05 significance level. Statistical analysis was run using Rbio software v. 200 [27].

3. Results

A significant interaction between the factors was observed only for the flavonoid daidzin (Table 1). In contrast, the leaf content of other compounds was influenced either by the hybrid (genistein) or by the replacement of evapotranspired water levels (daidzein). The flavonoid genistein was not influenced by treatments.
The hybrids Agri 002-E and Brevant SS318 exhibited the highest concentrations of genistein (Table 2). This finding suggests that these hybrids may serve as enriched sources of this compound, enhancing their suitability for use in food production or pharmaceutical applications.
A water deficit resulted in increased flavonoid daidzein content in sorghum leaves (Table 3). This is the first report in the literature of such an effect on this secondary metabolite in sorghum.
Regarding the interaction between hybrids and water deficits, it was observed that the hybrid Agri 002-E had the highest daidzein content under water deficit (ETc 50) (Table 4). The other hybrids did not show significant differences from each other under full water availability (ETc 100). Water deficit led to an accumulation of this metabolite in hybrid Agri 002-E, while no differences in daidzein content were observed among the other hybrids with varying levels of water availability.
The leaf content of P and S was significantly influenced by the interaction between factors (Table 5), whereas the levels of K, Ca, and Mg were affected by only one factor. The leaf contents of Mn and Zn were not influenced by the treatments.
The highest Ca and Mg contents were observed in the hybrids Agri 002-E and Brevant SS318 (Table 6). The BRS 658 hybrid had the lowest average levels for both nutrients, which may suggest lower uptake and utilization efficiencies for these elements.
Increased water availability resulted in higher leaf K levels across the hybrids (Table 7). These findings suggest that potassium levels are responsive to water conditions, with elevated concentrations observed under greater water availability.
The water deficit led to increased P and S levels for the hybrids Agri 002-E and BRS 658 (Table 8). In contrast, there was no significant difference in P and S content between water availability levels for the Brevant SS318 hybrid. This suggests that Brevant SS318 has a higher adaptability to water-deficit conditions, maintaining nutrient levels in its leaves despite reduced water availability. Its ability to sustain P and S levels under low water conditions makes it a promising option for cultivation in areas prone to water scarcity.
Table 9 summarizes the analysis of variance for the variables related to forage quality. Significant differences were observed among hybrids for DM and CP contents. The interaction between hybrids and water deficits was significant only for DM.
At the time of cutting, 96 days after emergence, the forage sorghum plants of the Agri 002-E and Brevant SS318 hybrids exhibited varying dry matter compositions based on water availability (Table 10).
The hybrids BRS 658 and Brevant SS318 demonstrated a higher CP content compared to Agri 002-E (Table 11). This finding showed the potential of these hybrids for use in animal feed.

4. Discussion

Overall, the hybrids exhibited different behaviors in terms of the variables evaluated under water deficit conditions. Daidzein levels were higher when the plants were under stress, while for daidzin, this was observed only in Agri 002-E. For the other variables, adequate water conditions favored the nutritional content and quality of the hybrids. The Agri 002-E and Brevant SS318 hybrids showed levels of genistein and daidzin (Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4).
Water deficit affects the flavonoid content in sorghum, but this effect is different for the different genotypes evaluated, and it can, therefore, be inferred that the flavonoid content can influence the selection of adapted or drought-tolerant cultivars [11]. Thus, plants that show physical damage caused by problems such as drought stress show a significant increase in flavonoids [10]. These compounds play an important role in the antioxidant metabolism and defense of plants [28]. Significant differences in chemical composition can be observed not only between different species but also within the same species. These differences are primarily due to various biotic and abiotic factors, such as age, genetic diversity, environmental influences, and diseases [29].
Xiong et al. [30] reported that changes in the isoflavone content, especially daidzin, manifest themselves differently between hybrids. Genotypes with a broad and diverse phenolic composition have more potential for exploitation in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
Lozovaya et al. [31] found that a water deficit increases the daidzein content in soybean seeds. High daidzein values are related to inhibitory and antioxidant activities and, when high in the leaf, have beneficial effects [32]. Antioxidant action occurs due to the large number of hydroxyl groups in their molecules, which eliminate free radicals and inhibit free radical-generating enzymes [33]. The antioxidant capacity of flavonoids is related to their stabilized structure, allowing them to interact with reactive free radicals, thereby protecting plant cells against occurrences that impair their metabolism [34].
Phenolic compounds such as flavonoids are characterized as important components of the plant cell wall that are highly involved in defense mechanisms against most abiotic stresses, such as water stress [35], increasing their content in the plant.
Pinheiro et al. [11] reported that environmental weathering affects the biosynthetic pathways of flavonoid synthesis differently across sorghum genotypes, underscoring the need for further molecular-level studies. Isoflavonoids, including genistein, are compounds that facilitate plant adaptation to environmental conditions [36]. As previously noted, the flavonoid content can vary with genotypes, as demonstrated by both Pinheiro et al. [11] and the current study. Additionally, the flavonoid content in each genotype can be influenced by the growing environment, as the isoflavone content is significantly affected by the genotype-environment interactions [37].
Similar findings were reported by Tardin et al. [38] and Galicia-Juárez et al. [8], who observed significant interactions between sorghum genotypes and water deficits for agronomic and physiological variables, respectively. However, there was no significant effect on the evaluated micronutrients.
We found that the water deficit increased P and S levels in Agri 002-E and BRS 658 but had no significant effect on Brevant SS318. Typically, sorghum grown under water deficit conditions shows reduced S and P contents [39], as reduced water availability impacts nutrient transport, particularly from plant tissues to the grains [40]. Paiva et al. [39] noted that variations in soil, climate, and genetics affect mineral content. The hybrids that exhibited higher P and S levels under water deficit conditions demonstrate a degree of tolerance to water scarcity. Kulczycki et al. [5] reported a decrease in mineral accumulation in plant tissues under water stress, suggesting that interrupted nutrient uptake may lead to reduced nutrient concentrations in the tissues.
Leão et al. [41] found that the highest K accumulations occurred in plants that had not experienced a water deficit. Nutrient availability, such as K, is closely dependent on soil moisture because the nutrient moves by diffusion and relies on the internal water flow of the plant. Accumulation of K in plant tissues can assist in osmotic adjustment and maintain the activity of aquaporins involved in water absorption, thereby enhancing tolerance to water stress [42].
Santi et al. [43] observed that dry mass production is directly influenced by deficiencies in nutrients such as Ca and Mg. Kulczycki et al. [5] reported that although Ca mobility is very low, its uptake and distribution were not affected and did not constrain plant function under stress conditions. However, during prolonged water stress, K ions are released from the clay particles, increasing their concentration in the soil solution and competitively inhibiting Ca uptake [44]. Since water stress affects different sorghum genotypes variably, each genotype will have a different threshold for the uptake and accumulation of nutrients [45].
Significant differences were observed among hybrids for DM and CP contents in this study, with the interaction between hybrids and water deficits significantly affecting only DM. The difference depending on the specific genotype was noted by Farhadi et al. [46], who observed an increased NDF and decreased CP in sorghum silage under water deficit.
Considering that DM is critical for determining the optimal harvest time for silage, the data suggest that, under water scarcity conditions, it is necessary to periodically assess the DM content of plants to produce silage with improved nutritional quality. Other hybrids may exhibit similar behavior to Agri 002-E, which, due to increased DM from water deficits, should be harvested early. While this approach may reduce the total dry mass harvested, it is likely to result in silage with better nutritional quality.
The varying CP contents show the potential of the hybrid BRS 658 and Brevant SS318 as a valuable source of protein for animal feed, particularly for meeting nutritional requirements [47].
Assessing the nutritional quality of sorghum genotypes is crucial for making informed decisions in the face of extreme weather events. Our findings offer promising prospects for applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries, given the value attributed to phenolic compounds, minerals, and sorghum hybrid quality for food and health benefits. Conversely, daidzin concentration, leaf phosphorus and potassium contents, and DM are affected by water deficit and sorghum hybrid variations.

5. Conclusions

Forage-sorghum hybrids show distinct responses under water deficit conditions (50% ETc). Daidzein levels increased in all hybrids under stress, while daidzin increased only in Agri 002-E.
Optimal water conditions (100% ETc) enhanced the nutritional quality of the hybrids. Agri 002-E and Brevant SS318 had higher genistein, daidzin, calcium, and magnesium levels, except for crude protein.
The water deficit increased phosphorus and sulfur levels in Agri 002-E and BRS 658, but not in Brevant SS318.
Agri 002-E showed a higher dry mass under water deficit, whereas BRS 658 and Brevant SS318 had a major increase in crude protein content.
These results emphasize the importance of selecting sorghum hybrids based on water condition performance to optimize flavonoids and nutritional content, in addition to crop performance.

Author Contributions

T.L.d.O.C.: writing—original draft preparation and investigation. D.C.S.: writing—review and editing, investigation, and data curation. G.d.F.T.: conceptualization, data curation, methodology, writing—review and editing, and funding acquisition. A.C.d.S.C.S.: methodology, writing—review and editing, and investigation. F.F.d.C.: methodology and writing—review and editing. P.E.T.: writing—review and editing and data curation. L.P.R.T.: writing—review and editing and data curation. L.C.V.Í.: methodology and writing—review and editing. C.N.S.C.: methodology and writing—review and editing. M.G.P.d.S.: investigation. A.S.M.: investigation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel—Brazil (CAPES)—Finance Code 001 and the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development—Brazil (CNPq)—Process 308769/2022-8.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Graduate Program in Agronomy (PPA) at the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) and the Graduate Program in Agricultural Engineering (PPGEA) at the Federal University of Viçosa (UFV) for supporting the researchers.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Table 1. Summary of the analysis of variance for the concentration of the flavonoids daidzein (D1), daidzin (D2), genistein (G1), and genistin (G2) evaluated in sorghum hybrids (H) grown in the presence and absence of water deficit (WD).
Table 1. Summary of the analysis of variance for the concentration of the flavonoids daidzein (D1), daidzin (D2), genistein (G1), and genistin (G2) evaluated in sorghum hybrids (H) grown in the presence and absence of water deficit (WD).
SVDFD1D2G1G2
H22.65 × 103 ns3.46 × 105 *9.15 × 103 *1.06 × 103 ns
WD13.95 × 105 *1.46 × 105 *8.93 × 102 ns2.31 × 102 ns
H × WD24.89 × 103 ns5.27 × 105 *4.11 × 102 ns1.96 × 103 ns
Residual182.75 × 1041.95 × 1051.88 × 1044.92 × 104
Mean 194.251579.80750.072156.89
ns and *: not significant and significant at 5% probability by the F test, respectively. SV: sources of variation; DF: degrees of freedom.
Table 2. Comparison of means for the genistein content in sorghum hybrids.
Table 2. Comparison of means for the genistein content in sorghum hybrids.
HybridGenistein (mg mL−1)
Agri 002-E4.78 a
Brevant SS3185.08 a
BRS 6583.22 b
Means followed by different letters in the same column differ by Tukey test at 5% probability.
Table 3. Comparison of means for the daidzein content in sorghum hybrids as a function of the presence or absence of water deficit.
Table 3. Comparison of means for the daidzein content in sorghum hybrids as a function of the presence or absence of water deficit.
ETcDaidzein (mg mL−1)
50322.51 a
10065.99 b
Means followed by different letters in the same column differ by Tukey test at 5% probability.
Table 4. Unfolding the significant forage sorghum hybrids x water deficit interaction for the daidzin flavonoid content.
Table 4. Unfolding the significant forage sorghum hybrids x water deficit interaction for the daidzin flavonoid content.
ETcDaidzin (mg mL−1)
Agri 002-EBrevant SS318BRS 658
506116.12 aA6116.11 aB424.26 aB
100409.00 bA1461.08 aA529.84 aA
Means followed by different lowercase letters in the same column and different uppercase letters in the same row differ by Tukey test at 5% probability.
Table 5. Summary of the analysis of variance for the leaf contents of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, and Zn evaluated in sorghum hybrids (H) under the presence and absence of water deficit (WD).
Table 5. Summary of the analysis of variance for the leaf contents of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, and Zn evaluated in sorghum hybrids (H) under the presence and absence of water deficit (WD).
SVDFPKCaMgSMnZn
H20.04 ns0.41 ns8.00 *2.35 *0.26 ns679.05 ns1.04 ns
WD11.28 *11.48 *0.01 ns0.51 ns5.70 ns1998.40 ns92.04 ns
H × WD20.25 *2.31 ns0.69 ns0.32 ns1.71 *1314.90 ns215.04 ns
Residual180.062.260.220.210.232242.1888.65
Mean 1.108.514.375.331.98129.7161.46
ns and *: not significant and significant at 5% probability by the F test, respectively. SV: sources of variation; DF: degrees of freedom.
Table 6. Comparison of means for leaf Ca and Mg contents of sorghum hybrids.
Table 6. Comparison of means for leaf Ca and Mg contents of sorghum hybrids.
HybridCa (g kg−1)Mg (g kg−1)
Agri 002-E4.78 a5.77 a
Brevant SS3185.08 a5.62 a
BRS 6583.22 b4.58 b
Means followed by different letters in the same column differ by Tukey test at 5% probability.
Table 7. Comparison of means for forage sorghum K leaf content as a function of the presence or absence of a water deficit.
Table 7. Comparison of means for forage sorghum K leaf content as a function of the presence or absence of a water deficit.
ETcK (g kg−1)
507.82 b
1009.20 a
Means followed by different letters in the same column differ by Tukey test at 5% probability.
Table 8. Unfolding the significant forage sorghum hybrid x water deficit interaction for leaf P and S contents.
Table 8. Unfolding the significant forage sorghum hybrid x water deficit interaction for leaf P and S contents.
ETcP (g kg−1)
Agri 002-EBrevant SS318BRS 658
501.55 aA1.10 aA1.35 aA
1000.82 bA1.03 aA0.75 bA
ETcS (g kg−1)
Agri 002-EBrevant SS318BRS 658
502.90 aA1.95 aB2.57 aAB
1001.47 bA1.72 aA1.30 bA
Means followed by different lowercase letters in the same column and different uppercase letters in the same row differ by Tukey test at 5% probability.
Table 9. Summary of the analysis of variance for the contents of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and mineral material (MM) evaluated in forage sorghum hybrids (H) with and without water deficit (WD).
Table 9. Summary of the analysis of variance for the contents of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and mineral material (MM) evaluated in forage sorghum hybrids (H) with and without water deficit (WD).
SVDFDMCPNDFMM
H2282.40 *7.70 *77.34 ns0.10 ns
WD184.46 ns1.45 ns99.81 ns0.18 ns
H × WD2225.21 *0.26 ns109.73 ns0.06 ns
Residual1829.561.1136.940.07
Mean 45.524.7250.471.27
ns and *: not significant and significant at 5% probability by the F test, respectively. SV: sources of variation; DF: degrees of freedom.
Table 10. Unfolding the significant forage sorghum hybrid x water deficit interaction for dry matter content (DM).
Table 10. Unfolding the significant forage sorghum hybrid x water deficit interaction for dry matter content (DM).
ETcDM (%)
Agri 002-EBrevant SS318BRS 658
5056.70 aA33.79 bB40.43 aB
10047.70 bA47.87 aA46.60 aA
Means followed by different lowercase letters in the same column and different uppercase letters in the same row differ by the Tukey test at a 5% probability level.
Table 11. Comparison of means for crude protein (CP) content of forage sorghum hybrids.
Table 11. Comparison of means for crude protein (CP) content of forage sorghum hybrids.
HybridCP (%)
Agri 002-E3.74 b
Brevant SS3184.70 ab
BRS 6585.71 a
Means followed by different letters in the same column differ by the Tukey test at a 5% probability level.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Cunha, T.L.d.O.; Santana, D.C.; Theodoro, G.d.F.; Seron, A.C.d.S.C.; Cunha, F.F.d.; Teodoro, P.E.; Teodoro, L.P.R.; Ítavo, L.C.V.; Campos, C.N.S.; Silva, M.G.P.d.; et al. Effect of Water Deficit on Secondary Metabolites and Nutrient Content on Forage Sorghum. Agronomy 2024, 14, 2046. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14092046

AMA Style

Cunha TLdO, Santana DC, Theodoro GdF, Seron ACdSC, Cunha FFd, Teodoro PE, Teodoro LPR, Ítavo LCV, Campos CNS, Silva MGPd, et al. Effect of Water Deficit on Secondary Metabolites and Nutrient Content on Forage Sorghum. Agronomy. 2024; 14(9):2046. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14092046

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cunha, Tayna Lemos de Oliveira, Dthenifer Cordeiro Santana, Gustavo de Faria Theodoro, Ana Carina da Silva Cândido Seron, Fernando França da Cunha, Paulo Eduardo Teodoro, Larissa Pereira Ribeiro Teodoro, Luis Carlos Vinhas Ítavo, Cid Naudi Silva Campos, Manoel Gustavo Paranhos da Silva, and et al. 2024. "Effect of Water Deficit on Secondary Metabolites and Nutrient Content on Forage Sorghum" Agronomy 14, no. 9: 2046. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14092046

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