Agroecological Practices and Agrobiodiversity: A Case Study on Organic Orange in Southern Italy
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Site Description and Climatic Data
2.2. System Management and Sampling
2.3. Soil Fertility Attributes
2.4. Fungal and Oomycetal Diversity Assessment
2.5. Weed Diversity Assessment
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Principal Component Analysis
3.2. Differences among Compared Systems
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Unit | Assessment |
---|---|---|
Total Nitrogen (TN) | % | Soil fertility |
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) | % | |
Soil available N (Nitrate, N-NO3−) | kg ha−1 | |
Soil available N (Ammonium, N-NH4+) | kg ha−1 | |
Available Phosphorus (Olsen, avP) | mg kg−1 | |
Amaranthus retroflexus L. (AMARE) | % | Weed community |
Brassica nigra (L.) Koch (BRSNI) | % | |
Capsella borsa-pastoris (L.) Medik. (CAPBP) | % | |
Calendula arvensis L. (CLDAR) | % | |
Convolvulus arvensis L. (CONAR) | % | |
Cyperus rotondus L. (CYPRO) | % | |
Diplotaxis erucoides (L.) DC. (DIPER) | % | |
Conyza canadensis L. (ERICA) | % | |
Fumaria officinalis L. (FUMOF) | % | |
Lamium amplexicaule L. (LAMAM) | % | |
Malva sylvestris L. (MALSI) | % | |
Oxalis pes-caprae L. (OXAPC) | % | |
Portulaca oleracea L. (POROL) | % | |
S. arvensis, S. asper, S. oleraceus L. (Sonchus spp.) | % | |
Stellaria media (L.) Vill. (STEME) | % | |
Urtica urens L. (URTUR) | % | |
Broad leaves species (27 species) | % | |
Grass species (8 species) | % | |
Weed density | - | |
Weed Evenness (Weed e) | - | |
Weed Richness (Weed R) | n m−2 | |
Alternaria spp. | % | Fungi and oomycetes community |
Aspergillus spp. | % | |
Cladosporium spp. | % | |
Fusarium spp. | % | |
Graphyum sp. | % | |
Penicillium spp. | % | |
Phytophthora sp. | % | |
Rhizopus nigricans | % | |
Staphylotrichum sp. | % | |
Trichoderma spp. | % | |
Verticillium spp. | % | |
Others (20 genera) | % | |
Colony Forming Unit (Ln-CFU) | Ln (n g−1) | |
Fungi and oomycetes Diversity (H-fungi) | - | |
Fungi and oomycetes Richness (S-fungi) | - |
PC1 | PC2 | PC3 | PC4 | PC5 | PC6 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TN | −0.33 | 0.42 | 0.35 | 0.13 | −0.43 | −0.14 |
TOC | −0.42 | 0.38 | 0.34 | 0.15 | −0.53 | −0.01 |
N-NO3− | 0.09 | −0.35 | 0.08 | −0.07 | 0.50 | 0.12 |
AMARE | −0.37 | −0.36 | 0.38 | 0.34 | 0.40 | −0.17 |
BRSNI | −0.29 | −0.18 | 0.02 | 0.02 | −0.47 | 0.07 |
CAPBP | 0.57 | −0.18 | 0.04 | −0.04 | −0.10 | 0.04 |
CYPRO | −0.51 | −0.31 | −0.14 | −0.11 | 0.05 | −0.09 |
DIPER | 0.42 | 0.05 | −0.08 | 0.32 | −0.18 | −0.11 |
FUMOF | 0.70 | −0.09 | 0.05 | −0.04 | −0.09 | 0.04 |
LAMAM | 0.53 | −0.03 | −0.19 | 0.40 | −0.17 | −0.16 |
MALSI | −0.23 | 0.01 | −0.06 | −0.09 | −0.42 | 0.11 |
POROL | −0.28 | −0.38 | 0.43 | 0.37 | 0.31 | −0.14 |
Sonchus spp. | 0.37 | −0.03 | 0.49 | −0.23 | −0.01 | 0.33 |
STEME | 0.61 | 0.13 | 0.11 | −0.11 | −0.10 | 0.06 |
URTUR | 0.42 | 0.19 | −0.10 | 0.04 | −0.14 | −0.18 |
Weed density | −0.02 | −0.53 | −0.10 | 0.04 | −0.04 | −0.08 |
Weed evenness | 0.37 | −0.40 | 0.30 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.03 |
Weed R | 0.36 | 0.40 | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.27 | 0.11 |
Fusarium spp. | 0.39 | −0.10 | 0.19 | 0.17 | −0.03 | −0.55 |
Cladosporium spp. | −0.07 | 0.07 | −0.20 | −0.02 | 0.07 | 0.51 |
Rhizopus nigricans | 0.23 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.23 | −0.04 | 0.45 |
Ln (CFU) | 0.07 | 0.60 | 0.18 | 0.23 | 0.35 | −0.34 |
H-fungi | −0.11 | −0.01 | −0.48 | 0.61 | 0.04 | 0.23 |
S-fungi | −0.05 | −0.07 | −0.43 | 0.62 | −0.01 | 0.14 |
PC1 | PC2 | PC3 | PC4 | PC5 | PC6 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year (Y) | ||||||
Y 1 | 0.90 a 2 | 0.32 b | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.05 | −0.00 |
Y 2 | −0.63 b | −0.22 a | −0.07 | −0.07 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
sig. 1 | *** | *** | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. |
System (S) | ||||||
Cont | 1.03 a | −1.11 c | 0.23 a | 0.24 | 0.43 a | 0.04 ab |
Barley (B) | 0.07 b | 1.14 a | −0.57 b | −0.14 | 0.53 a | −0.32 b |
Horse Bean (HB) | −1.09 c | −0.05 b | 0.36 a | −0.10 | −0.91 b | 0.28 a |
sig. | *** | *** | *** | n.s. | *** | ** |
Fertilizer (F) | ||||||
Min | 11.3 | −0.14 b | 0.21 a | −0.06 | 0.05 | 0.14 |
Comp | −11.3 | 0.14 a | −0.21 a | 0.06 | −0.05 | −0.14 |
sig. | n.s. | *** | *** | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. |
Y × S | *** | ** | *** | n.s. | *** | n.s. |
Y × F | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. |
S × F | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. |
Y × S × F | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. |
PC1 | PC2 | PC3 | PC5 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Y 1 Cont | 3.22 a2 | −0.77 b | −0.38 c | −0.31 c |
Y 2 Cont | −0.52 c | −1.36 c | 0.65 b | 1.17 a |
Y 1 B | 0.54 b | 1.07 a | −0.61 c | 0.82 a |
Y 2 B | −0.62 c | 1.19 a | −0.55 c | 0.24 b |
Y 1 HB | 0.89 b | 0.65 a | 1.27 a | −0.37 c |
Y 2 HB | −1.92 d | −0.53 b | −0.29 c | −1.45 d |
Sig.1 | *** | ** | *** | *** |
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Ciaccia, C.; La Torre, A.; Ferlito, F.; Testani, E.; Battaglia, V.; Salvati, L.; Roccuzzo, G. Agroecological Practices and Agrobiodiversity: A Case Study on Organic Orange in Southern Italy. Agronomy 2019, 9, 85. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9020085
Ciaccia C, La Torre A, Ferlito F, Testani E, Battaglia V, Salvati L, Roccuzzo G. Agroecological Practices and Agrobiodiversity: A Case Study on Organic Orange in Southern Italy. Agronomy. 2019; 9(2):85. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9020085
Chicago/Turabian StyleCiaccia, Corrado, Anna La Torre, Filippo Ferlito, Elena Testani, Valerio Battaglia, Luca Salvati, and Giancarlo Roccuzzo. 2019. "Agroecological Practices and Agrobiodiversity: A Case Study on Organic Orange in Southern Italy" Agronomy 9, no. 2: 85. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9020085