Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM2.5-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Measurements
2.2.1. Dry Deposition Calculations
2.2.2. Exposure Estimations
2.2.3. Non-Carcinogenic Risk Characterizations
2.2.4. Cancer Risk Characterizations
2.2.5. Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
2.2.6. Enrichment Factor
2.2.7. Potential Source Contribution Function (PSCF)
2.2.8. Tukey’s Test and Paired t-Test
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Overview of Trace Elements and PM2.5 in Urban and Rural Areas
3.2. Comparison of Variation in the Trace Elements of PM2.5 in Urban and Rural Areas
3.3. Origins of Trace Elements in PM2.5
3.4. Estimated dry Deposition Fluxes of Elements in PM2.5 in Urban and Rural Areas
3.5. Health Risk Assessments
3.5.1. Exposure Assessments for Trace Elements
3.5.2. Non-Carcinogenic Health Risks
3.5.3. Carcinogenic Risk
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Seoul | Seosan | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Element | Mean ± SD a | % BDL b | Median | Mean ± SD | %BDL | Median |
Si | 306 ± 527 | 30 | 101 | 460 ± 761 | 47 | 147 |
S | 1444 ± 908 | 0.9 | 1168 | 1265 ± 673 | 2.3 | 1153 |
K | 250 ± 131 | 0.9 | 219 | 294 ± 203 | 2.2 | 239 |
Ca | 81 ± 113 | 0.9 | 47 | 101 ± 160 | 2.2 | 53.0 |
Ti | 10.6 ± 10 | 0.9 | 7.8 | 12 ± 15 | 2.2 | 6.6 |
V | 0.7 ± 0.5 | 33 | 0.5 | 0.7 ± 0.7 | 56 | 0.4 |
Cr | 1.2 ± 1.0 | 7.7 | 0.9 | 1.3 ± 1.4 | 17 | 0.8 |
Mn | 13 ± 8.2 | 0.9 | 11 | 16 ± 22 | 2.6 | 10 |
Fe | 183 ± 135 | 1.0 | 142 | 210 ± 201 | 2.2 | 153 |
Ni | 0.8 ± 0.7 | 58 | 0.7 | 0.7 ± 0.8 | 12.6 | 0.4 |
Cu | 4.4 ± 4.0 | 0.9 | 2.9 | 4.1 ± 4.0 | 3.4 | 3.1 |
Zn | 49 ± 85 | 0.9 | 37 | 51 ± 41 | 2.6 | 39 |
As | 4.7 ± 3.8 | 0.9 | 3.8 | 3.9 ± 3.3 | 3.3 | 3.1 |
Se | 1.0 ± 1.0 | 7.4 | 0.5 | 1.4 ± 1.4 | 7.9 | 1.0 |
Br | 7.3 ± 6.4 | 0.9 | 4.8 | 8.8 ± 6.2 | 2.3 | 7.5 |
Ba | 2.2 ± 1.8 | 61 | 1.7 | - | −100 | - |
Pb | 21 ± 11 | 0.9 | 19 | 21.0 ± 11.8 | 4.3 | 19.7 |
Temperature (°C) | −3.5 ± 6.3 | - | - | −2.64 ± 5.63 | - | - |
Relative humidity (%) | 56.9 ± 15.7 | - | - | 70.0 ± 17.1 | - | - |
Wind speed (m/s) | 2.38 ± 1.09 | - | - | 1.79 ± 1.67 | - | - |
Wind direction (degree) | 205 ± 110.1 | - | - | 146 ± 138 | - | - |
Rainfall (mm) | 0.76 ± 0.93 | - | - | 0.33 ± 0.25 | - | - |
Seoul | Seosan | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F1 | F2 | F3 | F1 | F2 | F3 | F4 | |
Si | 0.01 | 0.98 | −0.09 | 0.98 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.02 |
S | 0.87 | 0.17 | 0.20 | −0.11 | 0.88 | 0.25 | 0.07 |
K | 0.55 | 0.68 | 0.34 | 0.58 | 0.64 | 0.31 | 0.10 |
Ca | 0.03 | 0.98 | −0.09 | 0.94 | 0.06 | 0.12 | −0.09 |
Ti | 0.09 | 0.98 | −0.03 | 0.97 | 0.04 | 0.16 | 0.03 |
V | 0.31 | 0.91 | −0.08 | 0.83 | 0.29 | 0.02 | 0.23 |
Cr | 0.88 | 0.36 | 0.17 | 0.46 | 0.52 | 0.44 | −0.20 |
Mn | 0.72 | 0.56 | 0.22 | 0.14 | 0.20 | 0.86 | 0.04 |
Fe | 0.41 | 0.90 | 0.00 | 0.89 | 0.23 | 0.37 | −0.03 |
Ni | 0.81 | 0.31 | 0.16 | 0.50 | 0.81 | 0.05 | −0.02 |
Cu | 0.85 | 0.28 | 0.03 | 0.30 | 0.17 | 0.77 | −0.05 |
Zn | 0.62 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.29 | 0.90 | 0.08 |
As | 0.02 | −0.13 | 0.95 | 0.05 | −0.18 | 0.00 | 0.93 |
Se | 0.87 | 0.27 | 0.05 | 0.13 | 0.88 | 0.21 | −0.17 |
Br | 0.95 | 0.14 | −0.07 | 0.12 | 0.87 | 0.31 | −0.01 |
Ba | 0.70 | −0.25 | 0.14 | No data | No data | No data | No data |
Pb | 0.27 | −0.01 | 0.93 | 0.04 | 0.33 | 0.61 | 0.59 |
Variance | 9.05 | 3.76 | 1.69 | 7.94 | 3.02 | 1.78 | 1.16 |
Percentage of variance (%) | 53.2 | 22.1 | 9.95 | 49.6 | 18.8 | 11.1 | 7.26 |
Cumulative (%) | 53.2 | 75.3 | 85.3 | 49.6 | 68.5 | 79.6 | 86.8 |
Element | Dry Deposition Velocity (cm s−1) | Mean ± SD (Seoul) | Mean ± SD (Seosan) |
---|---|---|---|
Si | 2.0 | 411.6 ± 689.9 | 530.5 ± 801.8 |
S | 1.0 | 1253.8 ± 654.0 | 1096.4 ± 451.6 |
K | 2.0 | 435.2 ± 169.5 | 510.4 ± 194.8 |
Ca | 2.0 | 144.3 ± 172.6 | 175.2 ± 219.8 |
Ti | 2.0 | 18.6 ± 16.1 | 20.0 ± 18.7 |
V | 1.0 | 0.5 ± 0.3 | 0.4 ± 0.4 |
Cr | 0.5 | 1.0 ± 0.6 | 1.0 ± 0.6 |
Mn | 1.0 | 11.4 ± 5.2 | 13.7 ± 10.4 |
Fe | 2.0 | 319.9 ± 208.3 | 363.2 ± 242.3 |
Ni | 0.5 | 0.5 ± 0.4 | 0.6 ± 0.4 |
Cu | 0.5 | 1.9 ± 1.3 | 1.8 ± 0.9 |
Zn | 0.5 | 21.3 ± 11.9 | 21.9 ± 9.6 |
As | 0.5 | 2.0 ± 0.8 | 1.7 ± 0.7 |
Se | 0.5 | 0.4 ± 0.4 | 0.6 ± 0.4 |
Br | 0.5 | 3.2 ± 1.8 | 3.8 ± 1.5 |
Ba | 0.5 | 0.7 ± 0.4 | 0.0 ± 0.0 |
Pb | 0.5 | 9.1 ± 2.7 | 9.1 ± 2.5 |
Element | Adult | Children | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HQing | HQder | HQinh | HQing | HQder | HQinh | |
Seoul | ||||||
Cr | 2.8 × 10−07 | 3.7 × 10−05 | 1.3 × 10−13 | 2.6 × 10−06 | 1.5 × 10−04 | 3.1 × 10−13 |
Mn | 2.0 × 10−07 | 8.3 × 10−06 | 3.0 × 10−12 | 1.9 × 10−06 | 3.3 × 10−05 | 6.9 × 10−12 |
Ni | 1.7 × 10−08 | 1.1 × 10−07 | 7.7 × 10−17 | 1.6 × 10−07 | 4.2 × 10−07 | 1.8 × 10−16 |
Cu | 7.8 × 10−08 | 1.7 × 10−08 | 3.6 × 10−16 | 7.3 × 10−07 | 6.8 × 10−08 | 8.4 × 10−16 |
V | 6.1 × 10−08 | 1.6 × 10−05 | 2.8 × 10−16 | 5.7 × 10−07 | 6.2 × 10−05 | 6.6 × 10−16 |
Zn | 1.2 × 10−07 | 3.8 × 10−08 | 5.3 × 10−16 | 1.1 × 10−06 | 1.5 × 10−07 | 1.2 × 10−15 |
As | 1.1 × 10−05 | 5.3 × 10−06 | 5.0 × 10−14 | 1.0 × 10−04 | 2.1 × 10−05 | 1.2 × 10−13 |
Pb | 4.2 × 10−06 | 1.9 × 10−05 | 1.9 × 10−14 | 3.9 × 10−05 | 7.4 × 10−05 | 4.5 × 10−14 |
HQ | 1.6 × 10−05 | 8.5 × 10−05 | 3.2 × 10−12 | 1.5 × 10−04 | 3.3 × 10−04 | 7.4 × 10−12 |
HI = ΣHQ | 1.0 × 10−04 | 4.8 × 10−04 | ||||
Seosan | ||||||
Cr | 2.8 × 10−07 | 3.8 × 10−05 | 1.4 × 10−13 | 2.7 × 10−06 | 1.5 × 10−04 | 3.2 × 10−13 |
Mn | 2.4 × 10−07 | 1.0 × 10−05 | 3.6 × 10−12 | 2.3 × 10−06 | 4.0 × 10−05 | 8.3 × 10−12 |
Ni | 2.5 × 10−08 | 1.5 × 10−07 | 1.1 × 10−16 | 2.3 × 10−07 | 6.0 × 10−07 | 2.6 × 10−16 |
Cu | 7.2 × 10−08 | 1.6 × 10−08 | 3.3 × 10−16 | 6.8 × 10−07 | 6.3 × 10−08 | 7.7 × 10−16 |
V | 5.1 × 10−08 | 1.3 × 10−05 | 2.4 × 10−16 | 4.8 × 10−07 | 5.2 × 10−05 | 5.5 × 10−16 |
Zn | 1.2 × 10−07 | 3.9 × 10−08 | 5.5 × 10−16 | 1.1 × 10−06 | 1.6 × 10−07 | 1.3 × 10−15 |
As | 9.0 × 10−06 | 4.4 × 10−06 | 4.1 × 10−14 | 8.4 × 10−05 | 1.7 × 10−05 | 9.6 × 10−14 |
Pb | 4.2 × 10−06 | 1.9 × 10−05 | 1.9 × 10−14 | 3.9 × 10−05 | 7.4 × 10−05 | 4.5 × 10−14 |
HQ | 1.4 × 10−05 | 8.4 × 10−05 | 3.8 × 10−12 | 1.3 × 10−04 | 3.3 × 10−04 | 8.8 × 10−12 |
HI = ΣHQ | 9.8 × 10−05 | 4.6 × 10−04 |
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Nirmalkar, J.; Lee, K.; Ahn, J.; Lee, J.; Song, M. Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM2.5-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks. Atmosphere 2023, 14, 753. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14040753
Nirmalkar J, Lee K, Ahn J, Lee J, Song M. Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM2.5-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks. Atmosphere. 2023; 14(4):753. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14040753
Chicago/Turabian StyleNirmalkar, Jayant, Kwangyul Lee, Junyoung Ahn, Jiyi Lee, and Mijung Song. 2023. "Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM2.5-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks" Atmosphere 14, no. 4: 753. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14040753