Using Diverse Data Sources to Impute Missing Air Quality Data Collected in a Resource-Limited Setting
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Correlation Studies
3.2. MICE Imputation Algorithm
3.3. Post-Imputation Test
4. Discussion
4.1. Correlation Studies
4.2. MICE Imputation Algorithm
4.3. Post-Imputation Test
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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NO2 | SO2 | PM10 | O3 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bodibeng | Within station | NO (r = 0.75) | PM10 (r = 0.42) | Humidity (r = −0.51) | Wind speed (r = 0.34) |
CO (r = 0.58) | NO (r = 0.25) | NO2 (r = 0.61) | Temperature (r = 0.32) | ||
PM10 (r = 0.61) | NO (r = 0.70) | ||||
Between stations | Tshwane west NO2 (r = 0.62) | Ekandustria SO2 (r = 0.63) | Tshwane west PM10 (r = 0.72) | Buccleuch O3 (r = 0.45) | |
Rosslyn NO2 (r = 0.47) | Rosslyn SO2 (r = 0.53) | Rosslyn PM10 (r = 0.50) | Booysens O3 (r = 0.54) | ||
Olievenhoutbosch NO2 (r = 0.37) | Mamelodi SO2 (r = 0.25) | Mamelodi PM10 (r = 0.16) | Mamelodi O3 (r = 0.64) | ||
Newtown NO2 (r = 0.53) | Booysens SO2 (r = 0.43) | Booysens PM10 (r = 0.63) | Rosslyn O3 (r = 0.64) | ||
Booysens NO2 (r = 0.44) | Tshwane west SO2 (r = 0.34) | Olievenhoutbosch PM10 (r = 0.59) | Olievenhoutbosch O3 (r = 0.64) | ||
Mamelodi NO2 (r = 0.39) | Olievenhoutbosch SO2 (r = 0.33) | Buccleuch PM10 (r = 0.56) | Newtown O3 (r = 0.13) | ||
Buccleuch NO2 (r = −0.40) | Buccleuch SO2 (r = −0.13) | Newtown PM10 (r = 0.56) | |||
Ekandustria NO2 (r = 0.12) | |||||
ECMWF | Tshwane wind direction (r = −0.27) | Tshwane total precipitation (r = −0.15) | Tshwane total precipitation (r = −0.22) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = 0.31) | |
Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.12) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.22) | Tshwane blh (r = 0.25) | |||
Tshwane total precipitation (r = −0.16) | |||||
Buccleuch | Within station | NO (r = 0.36) | Humidity (r = −0.51) | NO (r = 0.39) | Wind speed (r = −0.15) |
Ambient temperature (r = 0.23) | PM10 (r = 0.27) | SO2 (r = 0.27) | SO2 (r = −0.27) | ||
SO2 (r = 0.15) | 03 (r = −0.28) | Humidity (r = −0.15) | |||
Between stations | Newtown NO2 (r = −0.65) | Olievenhoutbosch SO2 (r = 0.63) | Bodibeng PM10 (r = 0.56) | Bodibeng O3 (r = 0.45) | |
Olievenhoutbosch NO2 (r = −0.48) | Ekandustria SO2 (r = 0.67) | Tshwane west PM10 (r = 0.50) | Mamelodi O3 (r = 0.27) | ||
Tshwane west NO2 (r = −0.38) | Mamelodi SO2 (r = 0.37) | Mamelodi PM10 (r = 0.44) | Tshwane west O3 (r = 0.21) | ||
Bodibeng NO2 (r = −0.40) | Rosslyn SO2 (r = 0.30) | Booysens PM10 (r = 0.24) | Olievenhoutbosch O3 (r = 0.16) | ||
Ekandustria NO2 (r = −0.23) | Bodibeng SO2 (r = −0.13) | Olievenhoutbosch PM10 (r = 0.33) | |||
Booysens NO2 (r = 0.10) | Booysens SO2 (r = 0.043) | Rosslyn PM10 (r = 0.29) | |||
Newtown PM10 (r = 0.57) | |||||
ECMWF | Johannesburg temperature @2m (r = 0.29) | Johannesburg total precipitation (r = −0.20) | Johannesburg wind speed (r = 0.14) | ||
Johannesburg blh (r = 0.18) | Johannesburg temperature @2m (r = −0.15) | ||||
Booysens | Within station | NO (r = 0.37) | 03 (r = −0.36) | NO (r = 0.56) | Wind speed (r = 0.36) |
Ambient temperature (r = −0.46) | NO (r = 0.28) | Ambient temperature (r = −0.42) | Temperature (r = 0.25) | ||
PM10 (r = 0.28) | NO2 (r = 0.28) | ||||
Wind speed (r = −0.33) | |||||
Between stations | Rosslyn NO2 (r = 0.64) | Olievenhoutbosch SO2 (r = 0.47) | Olievenhoutbosch PM10 (r = 0.65) | Bodibeng O3 (r = 0.64) | |
Newtown NO2 (r = 0.62) | Mamelodi SO2 (r = 0.42) | Bodibeng PM10 (r = 0.63) | Mamelodi O3 (r = 0.75) | ||
Olievenhoutbosch NO2 (r = 0.49) | Rosslyn SO2 (r = 0.42) | Buccleuch PM10 (r = 0.24) | Olievenhoutbosch O3 (r = 0.55) | ||
Mamelodi NO2 (r = 0.44) | Bodibeng SO2 (r = 0.43) | Tshwane west PM10 (r = 0.21) | Tshwane west O3 (r = 0.79) | ||
Bodibeng NO2 (r = 0.44) | Ekandustria SO2 (r = 0.35) | Rosslyn PM10 (r = 0.14) | Rosslyn O3 (r = 0.41) | ||
Ekandustria NO2 (r = 0.28) | Newtown PM10 (r = 0.58) | ||||
Buccleuch NO2 (r = 0.10) | Buccleuch SO2 (r = 0.043) | Mamelodi PM10 (r = 0.008) | |||
ECMWF | Tshwane total precipitation (r = −0.16) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.11) | Tshwane wind direction (r = −0.15) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = 0.27) | |
Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.22) | Tshwane wind speed (r = −0.12) | Tshwane total precipitation (r = −0.13) | Tshwane blh (r = 0.21) | ||
Tshwane wind direction (r = 0.13) |
NO2 | SO2 | PM10 | O3 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Olievenhoutbosch | Within station | NO (r = 0.77) | NO2 (r = 0.31) | NO2 (r = 0.62) | Wind speed (r = 0.28) |
CO (r = 0.57) | CO (r = 0.29) | CO (r = 0.52) | Temperature (r = 0.23) | ||
PM10 (r = 0.62) | PM10 (r = 0.24) | NO (r = 0.50) | |||
Between stations | Mamelodi NO2 (r = 0.71) | Mamelodi SO2 (r = 0.52) | Bodibeng PM10 (r = 0.59) | Bodibeng O3 (r = 0.64) | |
Rosslyn NO2 (r = 0.62) | Buccleuch SO2 (r = 0.63) | Booysens PM10 (r = 0.65) | Mamelodi O3 (r = 0.66) | ||
Tshwane west NO2 (r = 0.47) | Ekandustria SO2 (r = 0.55) | Newtown PM10 (r = 0.52) | Booysens O3 (r = 0.55) | ||
Booysens NO2 (r = 0.49) | Booysens SO2 (r = 0.47) | Mamelodi PM10 (r = 0.18) | Tshwane west O3 (r = 0.37) | ||
Buccleuch NO2 (r = −0.48) | Bodibeng SO2 (r = 0.33) | Tshwane west PM10 (r = 0.32) | Rosslyn O3 (r = 0.63) | ||
Newtown NO2 (r = 0.46) | Rosslyn SO2 (r = 0.44) | Rosslyn PM10 (r = 0.32) | |||
Bodibeng NO2 (r = 0.37) | Buccleuch PM10 (r = 0.52) | ||||
ECMWF | Tshwane wind speed (r = −0.21) | Tshwane wind direction (r = 0.23) | Tshwane total precipitation (r = −0.21) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = 0.28) | |
Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.26) | Tshwane wind speed (r = −0.18) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.20) | Tshwane blh (r = 0.23) | ||
Tshwane total precipitation (r = −0.16) | |||||
Ekandustria | Within station | NO (r = 0.82) | Wind speed (r = −0.16) | ||
Between stations | Mamelodi NO2 (r = 0.34) | Bodibeng SO2 (r = 0.63) | |||
Rosslyn NO2 (r = −0.28) | Rosslyn SO2 (r = 0.56) | ||||
Booysens NO2 (r = −0.28) | Olievenhoutbosch SO2 (r = 0.55) | ||||
Bodibeng NO2 (r = 0.12) | Buccleuch SO2 (r = 0.67) | ||||
Booysens SO2 (r = 0.35) | |||||
Mamelodi SO2 (r = 0.26) | |||||
ECMWF | Tshwane wind speed (r = −0.18) | Tshwane wind speed (r = −0.31) | |||
Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.20) | Tshwane wind direction (r = 0.18) | ||||
Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.13) | |||||
Mamelodi | Within station | NO (r = 0.87) | PM10 (r = −0.27) | NO2 (r = 0.31) | Wind speed (r = 0.42) |
Humidity (r = −0.51) | NO2 (r = 0.20) | NO (r = 0.36) | Temperature (r = 0.31) | ||
PM10 (r = 0.62) | Ambient temperature (r = −0.20) | SO2 (r = 0.27) | PM10 (r = 0.25) | ||
Between stations | Rosslyn NO2 (r = 0.71) | Olievenhoutbosch SO2 (r = 0.52) | Tshwane west PM10 (r = 0.57) | Bodibeng O3 (r = 0.64) | |
Olievenhoutbosch NO2 (r = 0.71) | Booysens SO2 (r = 0.42) | Rosslyn PM10 (r = 0.73) | Booysens O3 (r = 0.75) | ||
Booysens NO2 (r = 0.44) | Bodibeng SO2 (r = 0.25) | Buccleuch PM10 (r = −0.44) | Buccleuch O3 (r = 0.27) | ||
Tshwane west NO2 (r = 0.19) | Tshwane west SO2 (r = 0.28) | Olievenhoutbosch PM10 (r = 0.18) | Newtown O3 (r = 0.33) | ||
Bodibeng NO2 (r = 0.39) | Rosslyn SO2 (r = 0.33) | Bodibeng PM10 (r = 0.16) | Tshwane west O3 (r = 0.24) | ||
Ekandustria NO2 (r = 0.34) | Ekandustria SO2 (r = 0.26) | Booysens PM10 (r = 0.008) | Rosslyn O3 (r = 0.75) | ||
Newtown NO2 (r = −0.15) | Buccleuch SO2 (r = 0.37) | Olievenhoutbosch O3 (r = 0.66) | |||
ECMWF | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.11) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.17) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.16) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = 0.34) | |
Tshwane wind direction (r = 0.18) | Tshwane blh (r = 0.23) |
NO2 | SO2 | PM10 | O3 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tshwane west | Within station | Wind speed (r = −0.57) | Wind direction (r = −0.22) | NO (r = 0.57) | Wind speed (r = 0.49) |
NO (r = 0.51) | O3 (r = −0.23) | NO2 (r = 0.42) | Temperature (r = −0.28) | ||
PM10 (r = 0.42) | CO (r = 0.70) | SO2 (r = −0.23) | |||
Between stations | Olievenhoutbosch NO2 (r = 0.47) | Ekandustria SO2 (r = 0.44) | Bodibeng PM10 (r = 0.72) | Mamelodi O3 (r = 0.24) | |
Rosslyn NO2 (r = 0.55) | Olievenhoutbosch SO2 (r = 0.10) | Mamelodi PM10 (r = 0.57) | Booysens O3 (r = 0.79) | ||
Bodibeng NO2 (r = 0.62) | Mamelodi SO2 (r = 0.28) | Newtown PM10 (r = 0.71) | Buccleuch O3 (r = 0.27) | ||
Mamelodi NO2 (r = 0.19) | Bodibeng SO2 (r = 0.34) | Rosslyn PM10 (r = 0.54) | Newtown O3 (r = 0.33) | ||
Newtown NO2 (r = 0.42) | Rosslyn SO2 (r = 0.24) | Buccleuch PM10 (r = 0.50) | Olievenhoutbosch O3 (r = 0.37) | ||
Olievenhoutbosch PM10 (r = 0.32) | |||||
ECMWF | Tshwane total precipitation (r = −0.14) | Tshwane total wind direction (r = 0.14) | Tshwane total precipitation (r = −0.18) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = 0.31) | |
Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.13) | Tshwane blh (r = 0.35) | ||||
Rosslyn | Within station | NO (r = 0.81) | NO2 (r = 0.47) | NO2 (r = 0.55) | Wind speed (r = 0.34) |
PM10 (r = 0.55) | NO (r = 0.45) | NO (r = 0.57) | Temperature (r = 0.50) | ||
SO2 (r = 0.47) | SO2 (r = 0.25) | NO (r = −0.41) | |||
Ambient temperature (r = −0.48) | NO2 (r = −0.36) | ||||
Between stations | Mamelodi NO2 (r = 0.71) | Ekandustria SO2 (r = 0.56) | Bodibeng PM10 (r = 0.50) | Mamelodi O3 (r = 0.75) | |
Olievenhoutbosch NO2 (r = 0.62) | Bodibeng SO2 (r = 0.53) | Tshwane west PM10 (r = 0.54) | Booysens O3 (r = 0.41) | ||
Booysens NO2 (r = 0.64) | Booysens SO2 (r = 0.42) | Mamelodi PM10 (r = 0.73) | Tshwane west O3 (r = 0.56) | ||
Tshwane west NO2 (r = 0.55) | Tshwane west SO2 (r = 0.24) | Newtown PM10 (r = 0.28) | Bodibeng O3 (r = 0.49) | ||
Ekandustria NO2 (r = 0.28) | Olievenhoutbosch SO2 (r = 0.44) | Buccleuch PM10 (r = 0.29) | Olievenhoutbosch O3 (r = 0.63) | ||
Bodibeng NO2 (r = 0.47) | Mamelodi SO2 (r = 0.33) | Olievenhoutbosch PM10 (r = 0.32) | |||
Newtown NO2 (r = 0.18) | Buccleuch SO2 (r = 0.67) | Booysens PM10 (r = 0.14) | |||
ECMWF | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.28) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.12) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = −0.11) | Tshwane temperature @2m (r = 0.48) | |
Tshwane total precipitation (r = −0.15) | Tshwane blh (r = 0.39) | ||||
Newtown | Within station | Wind speed (r = −0.30) | NO (r = 0.49) | Wind speed (r = 0.23) | |
Wind speed (r = −0.31) | Temperature (r = 0.21) | ||||
NO2 (r = 0.28) | |||||
Between stations | Buccleuch NO2 (r = −0.65) | Tshwane west PM10 (r = 0.71) | Mamelodi O3 (r = 0.33) | ||
Booysens NO2 (r = 0.62) | Booysens PM10 (r = 0.58) | Olievenhoutbosch O3 (r = 0.17) | |||
Bodibeng (r = 0.53) | Buccleuch PM10 (r = −0.57) | ||||
Tshwane west NO2 (r = 0.42) | Rosslyn PM10 (r = −0.28) | ||||
Olievenhoutbosch NO2 (r = 0.46) | Bodibeng PM10 (r = 0.56) | ||||
Rosslyn NO2 (r = 0.18) | Olievenhoutbosch PM10 (r = 0.52) | ||||
ECMWF | Johannesburg blh (r = −0.19) | Johannesburg total precipitation (r = −0.13) | |||
Johannesburg Wind speed (r = −0.18) |
Station | NO2 | SO2 | PM10 | O3 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bodibeng | 0.58 (0.54–0.62) | 0.50 (0.42–0.57) | 0.68 (0.65–0.71) | 0.50 (0.47–0.54) |
Buccleuch | 0.39 (0.28–0.45) | 0.44 (0.41–0.48) | 0.45 (0.36–0.53) | 0.14 (0.01–0.35) |
Booysens | 0.37 (0.29–0.45) | 0.34 (0.28–0.40) | 0.48 (0.41–0.54) | 0.65 (0.61–0.68) |
Olievenhoutbosch | 0.72 (0.66–0.77) | 0.51 (0.44–0.58) | 0.45 (0.39–0.52) | 0.61 (0.55–0.67) |
Ekandustria | 0.73 (0.67–0.78) | 0.48 (0.43–0.53) | ||
Mamelodi | 0.63 (0.58–0.68) | 0.34 (0.28–0.39) | 0.49 (0.40–0.57) | 0.64 (0.59–0.69) |
Pretoria | 0.36 (0.28–0.45) | 0.24 (0.12–0.38) | 0.52 (0.31–0.69) | 0.43 (0.31–0.96) |
Rosslyn | 0.77 (0.74–0.79) | 0.38 (0.32–0.43) | 0.47 (0.38–0.56) | 0.66 (0.61–0.72) |
Newtown | 0.36 (0.28–0.45) | 0.43 (0.40–0.54) | 0.33 (0.22–0.44) | |
All combined | 0.61 (0.40–0.76) | 0.48 (0.42–0.54) | 0.47 (0.39–0.54) | 0.13 (0.03–0.28) |
Station | NO2 | SO2 | PM10 | O3 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bodibeng | 0.57 (0.55–0.59) | 0.28 (0.25–0.31) | 0.52 (0.49–0.54) | 0.31 (0.28–0.34) |
Buccleuch | 0.26 (0.24–0.29) | 0.26 (0.23–0.29) | 0.16 (0.13–0.19) | 0.06 (0.05–0.08) |
Booysens | 0.15 (0.13–0.17) | 0.11 (0.09–0.13) | 0.33 (0.30–0.36) | 0.24 (0.21–0.26) |
Olievenhoutbosch | 0.63 (0.61–0.65) | 0.26 (0.23–0.29) | 0.35 (0.32–0.38) | 0.35 (0.33–0.38) |
Ekandustria | 0.03 (0.02–0.04) | 0.16 (0.14–0.19) | ||
Mamelodi | 0.48 (0.45–0.51) | 0.16 (0.13–0.18) | 0.13 (0.10–0.15) | 0.44 (0.41–0.46) |
Pretoria | 0.28 (0.25–0.31) | 0.05 (0.04–0.07) | 0.21 (0.18–0.24) | 0.16 (0.14–0.19) |
Rosslyn | 0.77 (0.74–0.79) | 0.23 (0.20–0.26) | 0.36 (0.33–0.39) | 0.38 (0.35–0.41) |
Newtown | 0.14 (0.12–0.17) | 0.25 (0.22–0.28) | 0.03 (0.02–0.04) | |
Stations combined | 0.23 (0.20–0.26) | 0.25 (0.23–0.28) | 0.25 (0.23–0.28) | 0.02 (0.01–0.03) |
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Kebalepile, M.M.; Dzikiti, L.N.; Voyi, K. Using Diverse Data Sources to Impute Missing Air Quality Data Collected in a Resource-Limited Setting. Atmosphere 2024, 15, 303. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15030303
Kebalepile MM, Dzikiti LN, Voyi K. Using Diverse Data Sources to Impute Missing Air Quality Data Collected in a Resource-Limited Setting. Atmosphere. 2024; 15(3):303. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15030303
Chicago/Turabian StyleKebalepile, Moses Mogakolodi, Loveness Nyaradzo Dzikiti, and Kuku Voyi. 2024. "Using Diverse Data Sources to Impute Missing Air Quality Data Collected in a Resource-Limited Setting" Atmosphere 15, no. 3: 303. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15030303