Investigation of Sediment-Rich Glacial Meltwater Plumes Using a High-Resolution Multispectral Sensor Mounted on an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Field Measurements
2.3. UAV Data Acquisition
2.4. Image Postprocessing
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Selected Glacier | Tectonic Formations (Birkenmajer [41]) | Geological Bedrock (Birkenmajer [41]) | Active Front Altitude (m) | Active Front Width (m)/Length of Front Adjoining Cove Waters (m) | Cove Name, Area (km2) | Sun Exposure | Glacial Retreat Ratio 1956–1995 (Braun and Gossman [47]) (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ecology Glacier | Llano Point Formation (Warszawa Block) | Basalts and andesites alternating with agglomerates and tuffs | ~40 | 1185/880 | Suszczewski Cove/0.359 | NE | 5.9 |
Dera Icefall | Point Thomas Formation (Warszawa Block) | High-aluminium basalts, breccias | - | Retreated from the waterfront | Hervé Cove/0.182 | N | 3 |
Zalewski Glacier | Two formations divided by the Ezcurra Fault: Znosko Glacier Formation (Barton Horst)/Point Thomas Formation (Warszawa Block) | Andesites, tuffs, and agglomerates/high-aluminium basalts, breccias | ~33 | 445/255 | Unnamed Cove/0.180 | NE | 0.9, but since 1995, it has rapidly retreated further |
Krak Glacier | Mount Wawel Formation (Warszawa Block) | Terrestrial volcanics with plant-bearing strata | max 46 | 785/785 | Lussich Cove/0.181 | NW/W | 20.9 |
Glacier | Area Covered by the UAV Mission | Number of Photographs Taken during the Mission | Flight Altitude | Ground Sampling Distance (GSD)—Pixel Resolution | Mission Date | Tide Height during Measurements |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ecology | 0.23 km2 | 980 | 110 m | 11.7 cm | 26 January 2019 | 1.41 m to 1.19 m |
Krak | 0.32 km2 | 1440 | 145 m | 15.2 cm | 31January 2019 | 0.49 m to 0.58 m |
Zalewski | 0.33 km2 | 740 | 150 m | 15.4 cm | 28 January 2019 | 1.09 m to 0.99 m |
0.32 km2 | 616 | 150 m | 15.2 cm | 10 February 2019 | 1.15 m to 1.08 m | |
Dera | 0.22 km2 | 448 | 155 m | 14.02 cm | 9 February 2019 | 0.60 m to 0.67 m |
Glacier | Root Mean Square Error (m) | Mean Re-Projection Error (pixels) | Key Points Image Scale | |
---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | |||
Ecology | 2.15 | 2.20 | 0.525 | 9797 |
Krak | 3.21 | 3.71 | 0.436 | 8979 |
Zalewski 1 | 3.09 | 2.92 | 0.325 | 9067 |
Zalewski 2 | 2.42 | 2.14 | 0.386 | 8990 |
Dera | 2.85 | 1.90 | 0.326 | 9250 |
Glacier | Number of Samples | Turbidity Range (FNU) | Spectral Region | Reflectance Range (Rrs) | r2 | P-Value | Correlation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ecology | 638 | 1.91–26.47 | 530–570 nm | 0.02–0.32 | 0.071 | 8.85 × 10−12 | 0.266 |
640–680 nm | 0.02–0.38 | 0.138 | 2.71 × 10−22 | 0.371 | |||
730–740 nm | 0.01–0.58 | 0.064 | 1.00 × 10−10 | 0.252 | |||
770–810 nm | 0.01–0.56 | 0.031 | 8.05 × 10−6 | 0.176 | |||
Red + NIR | 0.02–0.80 | 0.093 | 3.02 × 10−15 | 0.305 | |||
Red/NIR | 0.12–20.34 | 0.020 | 2.94 × 10−4 | 0.143 | |||
Dera | 353 | 1.18–23.82 | 530–570 nm | 0.03–0.37 | 0.339 | 2.39 × 10−32 | 0.582 |
640–680 nm | 0.02–0.34 | 0.463 | 1.13 × 10−47 | 0.680 | |||
730–740 nm | 0.01–0.40 | 0.504 | 1.53 × 10−53 | 0.710 | |||
770–810 nm | 0.01–0.34 | 0.501 | 4.27 × 10−53 | 0.708 | |||
Red + NIR | 0.04–0.67 | 0.506 | 8.10 × 10−54 | 0.711 | |||
Red/NIR | 0.11–3.33 | 0.294 | 1.90 × 10−27 | −0.542 | |||
Zalewski 1 | 445 | 1.74–167.35 | 530–570 nm | 0.05–0.86 | 0.358 | 2.19 × 10−38 | 0.598 |
640–680 nm | 0.03–0.75 | 0.476 | 4.10 × 10−55 | 0.690 | |||
730–740 nm | 0.01–0.83 | 0.497 | 1.77 × 10−58 | 0.705 | |||
770–810 nm | 0.01–0.68 | 0.498 | 1.01 × 10−58 | 0.706 | |||
Red + NIR | 0.05–1.41 | 0.496 | 2.07 × 10−58 | 0.705 | |||
Red/NIR | 0.29–3.44 | 0.420 | 9.26 × 10−47 | −0.648 | |||
Zalewski 2 | 451 | 1.18–97.65 | 530–570 nm | 0.03–0.62 | 0.727 | 6.39 × 10−129 | 0.853 |
640–680 nm | 0.03–0.57 | 0.718 | 6.82 × 10−126 | 0.848 | |||
730–740 nm | 0.01–0.63 | 0.702 | 2.59 × 10−120 | 0.838 | |||
770–810 nm | 0.02–0.55 | 0.685 | 7.44 × 10−115 | 0.827 | |||
Red + NIR | 0.04–1.06 | 0.715 | 7.46 × 10−125 | 0.846 | |||
Red/NIR | 0.27–6.53 | 0.004 | 1.81 × 10−1 | −0.063 | |||
Krak | 626 | 1.19–11.39 | 530–570 nm | 0.03–0.70 | 0.100 | 5.66 × 10−16 | 0.316 |
640–680 nm | 0.02–0.92 | 0.166 | 1.67 × 10−26 | 0.408 | |||
730–740 nm | 0.01–1.09 | 0.256 | 5.90 × 10−42 | 0.506 | |||
770–810 nm | 0.01–1.10 | 0.270 | 1.47 × 10−44 | 0.519 | |||
Red + NIR | 0.05–2.02 | 0.219 | 2.66 × 10−35 | 0.467 | |||
Red/NIR | 0.13–12.53 | 0.159 | 2.61 × 10−25 | −0.399 |
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Wójcik, K.A.; Bialik, R.J.; Osińska, M.; Figielski, M. Investigation of Sediment-Rich Glacial Meltwater Plumes Using a High-Resolution Multispectral Sensor Mounted on an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Water 2019, 11, 2405. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112405
Wójcik KA, Bialik RJ, Osińska M, Figielski M. Investigation of Sediment-Rich Glacial Meltwater Plumes Using a High-Resolution Multispectral Sensor Mounted on an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Water. 2019; 11(11):2405. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112405
Chicago/Turabian StyleWójcik, Kornelia Anna, Robert Józef Bialik, Maria Osińska, and Marek Figielski. 2019. "Investigation of Sediment-Rich Glacial Meltwater Plumes Using a High-Resolution Multispectral Sensor Mounted on an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle" Water 11, no. 11: 2405. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112405