Author Contributions
Conceptualisation, Y.S., M.E., M.L., M.M., J.M.A. and A.S.-A.; methodology, Y.S. and M.E.; software, Y.S. and M.E.; validation, Y.S., M.E., M.L., M.M. and J.M.A.; formal analysis, Y.S. and M.E.; resources, M.E. and A.S.-A.; data curation, Y.S. and M.E.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.S.; writing—review and editing, Y.S., M.E., M.L., M.M., J.M.A. and A.S.-A.; visualisation, Y.S. and M.E.; supervision, M.E. and A.S.-A.; project administration, M.E. and A.S.-A.; funding acquisition, M.E. and A.S.-A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
Location of the ports studied. The red square corresponds to the outer points discussed below; the green pin corresponds to the inner points; the yellow triangle represents the ADCP locations, and the blue circle indicates the meteorological stations.
Figure 1.
Location of the ports studied. The red square corresponds to the outer points discussed below; the green pin corresponds to the inner points; the yellow triangle represents the ADCP locations, and the blue circle indicates the meteorological stations.
Figure 2.
Location and extension of the coastal (red box) and harbour (yellow box) domains in Huelva (a), Gijón (b) and Cartagena (c). The bathymetry of each domain is also shown (yellow corresponds to shallower and dark blue to deeper areas).
Figure 2.
Location and extension of the coastal (red box) and harbour (yellow box) domains in Huelva (a), Gijón (b) and Cartagena (c). The bathymetry of each domain is also shown (yellow corresponds to shallower and dark blue to deeper areas).
Figure 3.
Time series of atmospheric pressure in Gijón (A), meteorological tide in Cartagena (B) and currents through the mouth in Huelva (C). The observations correspond with the blue lines and forecasted by SAMOA are the black dots.
Figure 3.
Time series of atmospheric pressure in Gijón (A), meteorological tide in Cartagena (B) and currents through the mouth in Huelva (C). The observations correspond with the blue lines and forecasted by SAMOA are the black dots.
Figure 4.
From top to bottom, water renewal time (a), currents at the mouth (b), measured atmospheric pressure (c), and measured wind (d) (the grey shaded area highlights the direction that allows water inflow) in Huelva’s harbour. The boxes show two examples of high renewal time episodes: the purple one, related to an episode of wind favourable to water inflow, and the green one, linked to an increase in atmospheric pressure.
Figure 4.
From top to bottom, water renewal time (a), currents at the mouth (b), measured atmospheric pressure (c), and measured wind (d) (the grey shaded area highlights the direction that allows water inflow) in Huelva’s harbour. The boxes show two examples of high renewal time episodes: the purple one, related to an episode of wind favourable to water inflow, and the green one, linked to an increase in atmospheric pressure.
Figure 5.
From top to bottom, water renewal time (a), currents at the mouth (b), measured atmospheric pressure (c), and measured wind (d) (the grey shaded area highlights the direction that allows water inflow) in Gijón’s harbour. The boxes show two examples of high renewal time episodes: the purple one, related to an episode of wind favourable to water inflow, and the green one, linked to an increase in atmospheric pressure.
Figure 5.
From top to bottom, water renewal time (a), currents at the mouth (b), measured atmospheric pressure (c), and measured wind (d) (the grey shaded area highlights the direction that allows water inflow) in Gijón’s harbour. The boxes show two examples of high renewal time episodes: the purple one, related to an episode of wind favourable to water inflow, and the green one, linked to an increase in atmospheric pressure.
Figure 6.
From top to bottom, water renewal time (a), currents at the mouth (b), measured atmospheric pressure (c), and measured wind (d) (the grey shaded area highlights the direction that allows water inflow) on Cartagena’s harbour. The boxes show two examples of high renewal time episodes: the purple one, related to an episode of wind favourable to water inflow, and the green one, linked to an increase in atmospheric pressure.
Figure 6.
From top to bottom, water renewal time (a), currents at the mouth (b), measured atmospheric pressure (c), and measured wind (d) (the grey shaded area highlights the direction that allows water inflow) on Cartagena’s harbour. The boxes show two examples of high renewal time episodes: the purple one, related to an episode of wind favourable to water inflow, and the green one, linked to an increase in atmospheric pressure.
Figure 7.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Huelva during the southeast wind episode on 24 April 2021.
Figure 7.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Huelva during the southeast wind episode on 24 April 2021.
Figure 8.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Huelva during the episode of increased atmospheric pressure on 22 May 2021.
Figure 8.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Huelva during the episode of increased atmospheric pressure on 22 May 2021.
Figure 9.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Gijón during the northeast wind episode on 23 November 2021.
Figure 9.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Gijón during the northeast wind episode on 23 November 2021.
Figure 10.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Gijón during the episode of increased atmospheric pressure on 4 January 2022.
Figure 10.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Gijón during the episode of increased atmospheric pressure on 4 January 2022.
Figure 11.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Cartagena during the northeast wind episode on 23 November 2021.
Figure 11.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Cartagena during the northeast wind episode on 23 November 2021.
Figure 12.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Cartagena during the episode of increased atmospheric pressure on 15 November 2020.
Figure 12.
Intensity and direction of the sea currents (a) and sea level variation (b) in the port of Cartagena during the episode of increased atmospheric pressure on 15 November 2020.
Figure 13.
Difference (cm) in sea level between the interior and exterior of the harbour (black line) and renewal time (days) in Huelva (a), Gijón (b) and Cartagena (c) harbours. The green boxes highlight the events analysed by the model during which the atmospheric pressure and the renewal time increase. Note the difference of scales on centimetres axes between the different ports for better visualisation.
Figure 13.
Difference (cm) in sea level between the interior and exterior of the harbour (black line) and renewal time (days) in Huelva (a), Gijón (b) and Cartagena (c) harbours. The green boxes highlight the events analysed by the model during which the atmospheric pressure and the renewal time increase. Note the difference of scales on centimetres axes between the different ports for better visualisation.
Figure 14.
Profile of a harbour and its external zone with a water level difference between interior and exterior. The red arrow indicates the inflow at the mouth of the harbour. This figure explains the theory of the movement of water from the exterior to the interior as a consequence of the difference in level generated by increases in atmospheric pressure. The volume of water in the harbour is smaller, and therefore the level decreases faster, which generates a difference in level with the outside and a consequent inflow of water.
Figure 14.
Profile of a harbour and its external zone with a water level difference between interior and exterior. The red arrow indicates the inflow at the mouth of the harbour. This figure explains the theory of the movement of water from the exterior to the interior as a consequence of the difference in level generated by increases in atmospheric pressure. The volume of water in the harbour is smaller, and therefore the level decreases faster, which generates a difference in level with the outside and a consequent inflow of water.
Table 1.
Main characteristics of each study area.
Table 1.
Main characteristics of each study area.
Harbour | Surface (km2) | Mean Depth (m) | Volume Considered (m3) |
---|
Huelva | 5.04 | 10.3 | 51.91200 |
Gijón | 0.95 | 11.4 | 10.80162 |
Cartagena | 0.95 | 20.3 | 19.31455 |
Table 2.
Characteristics of the computational domains.
Table 2.
Characteristics of the computational domains.
Harbour | Domain | Extension (km) | Dimension (Cells) |
---|
Huelva | Coastal | 106 × 70.5 | 303 × 202 |
Harbour | 26 × 24.3 | 372 × 347 |
Gijón | Coastal | 77.9 × 40 | 223 × 115 |
Harbour | 15.5 × 9.9 | 222 × 142 |
Cartagena | Coastal | 55.4 × 39 | 159 × 112 |
Harbour | 17.26 × 8.13 | 177 × 132 |
Table 3.
Number of data (observations and model results) used for the validation of the variables analysed.
Table 3.
Number of data (observations and model results) used for the validation of the variables analysed.
Variable | Number of Data for the Validation |
---|
Huelva | Gijón | Cartagena |
---|
Atmospheric pressure | 1729 | 224 | 452 |
Meteorological tide | 1793 | 1463 | 2752 |
Currents through the mouth | 2161 | 1729 | 2752 |
Table 4.
Model validation metrics for simulated atmospheric pressure, meteorological tide and currents through the mouth compared with observation from campaign data.
Table 4.
Model validation metrics for simulated atmospheric pressure, meteorological tide and currents through the mouth compared with observation from campaign data.
Variable | Statistical | Huelva | Gijón | Cartagena |
---|
Atmospheric pressure | RMSD | 256.23 hPa | 120.38 hPa | 111.17 hPa |
R | 0.61 | 0.87 | 0.83 |
Meteorological tide | RMSD | −0.0009 m | −0.01 m | 0 m |
R | 0.57 | 0.73 | 0.88 |
Currents through the mouth | RMSD | −0.01 m/s | −0.03 m/s | 0.009 m/s |
R | 0.76 | 0.45 | 0.34 |
Table 5.
Average renewal time (days) calculated from the data obtained during the measurement campaigns and days (%) above this average of the total campaign data.
Table 5.
Average renewal time (days) calculated from the data obtained during the measurement campaigns and days (%) above this average of the total campaign data.
| Mean TR | Days above Average (%) |
---|
HUELVA | 27 days | 28 |
GIJÓN | 21 days | 27 |
CARTAGENA | 25 days | 25 |
Table 6.
Summary of the causes that have been identified from the measured time series to justify the increases in renovation times in the three ports analysed.
Table 6.
Summary of the causes that have been identified from the measured time series to justify the increases in renovation times in the three ports analysed.
| Days with Renewal Time Above Average |
---|
Cause |
---|
Wind (%) | Atmospheric Pressure (%) | Unknown (%) |
---|
HUELVA | 20 | 32 | 48 |
GIJÓN | 26 | 44 | 30 |
CARTAGENA | 53 | 27 | 20 |