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Article

Geothermal Water Exploration of the Maoyanhe Hot Spring Scenic Spot in Zhangjiajie Using the Natural Electric Field Frequency Selection Method

by
Yulong Lu
1,2,
Haiyang Ding
1,
Tianchun Yang
1,* and
Yang Liu
1
1
School of Earth Sciences and Spatial Information Engineering, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
2
Institute of Geological Survey of Hunan Province, Changsha 410083, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2023, 15(19), 3418; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15193418
Submission received: 2 August 2023 / Revised: 11 September 2023 / Accepted: 26 September 2023 / Published: 28 September 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Management Technologies for Deep Excavations in Water-Rich Areas)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Natural electric field frequency selection method was proposed by Chinese scholars in the 1980s on the basis of imitating the field observation method of the magnetotelluric method (MT). It can only measure the magnetotelluric field components of one or several frequencies on the surface to determine the existence of underground geological bodies. This method has played an important role in shallow groundwater exploration. This paper mainly discusses the application of frequency selection method in the exploration of underground hot water in the Maoyanhe Scenic spot, Zhangjiajie City, Hunan Province, in order to illustrate the effectiveness of the frequency selection method in water exploration. According to the situation of the construction site, nearly 20 geophysical prospecting survey lines of varying lengths were laid flexibly within the red line of the Maoyan River Scenic Spot. Firstly, three-frequency (170 Hz, 67 Hz and 25 Hz) measurements were carried out on each survey line to preliminarily determine the possible horizontal location of underground hot water. Secondly, in the vicinity of the low potential anomaly of the three-frequency curve, the fine measurement by using multi-frequency bipolar profile method was further carried out. The specific distribution of underground hot water was determined based on the principle of frequency domain sounding and the static effect characteristics of the electromagnetic method so as to provide a scientific basis for the drilling layout. Finally, the reliability of the frequency selection method is verified by two verification boreholes. The results indicate that the frequency selection method is one of the effective geophysical exploration methods in groundwater exploration.

1. Introduction

Geothermal energy is a kind of green, sustainable, and renewable energy, with the development of society and the improvement of people’s living standards. Making full use of geothermal energy can maintain and promote the health of the ecological environment and improve the regional energy utilization structure. Geothermal resources of hydrothermal type, which integrate heat energy and water resources, have the advantages of wide distribution, stability and reliability, simple development and utilization, and high economic benefits, and therefore hydrothermal type geothermal resources occupy a relatively large proportion in the geothermal development market [1]. China is one of the countries with large reserves of geothermal resources in the world, especially the medium and low thermal resources of hydrothermal type, which have huge development potential [2,3].
Geophysical exploration has always played an important role in the exploitation of geothermal resources. Because of the uniformly distributed underground hot water channels, the temperature [4,5,6,7], density [8,9,10,11,12], electrical conductivity [13,14,15,16,17], wave velocity [18,19], magnetic susceptibility [20,21,22] and other physical parameters of underground media, these differences in physical properties provide a physical basis for geophysical exploration of geothermal energy. The conductivity of underground media is one of the important parameters to characterize the geothermal environment, and it is also the method basis for the application of the electromagnetic method in geothermal exploration, and the electromagnetic method has also obtained many achievements in the exploration of geothermal resources [23,24,25,26].
Maoyanhe Town, Yongding District, Zhangjiajie City, Hunan Province, is located in the core area of the World Natural Heritage connecting line—Jiaoziya to Wentang Road. There are “Li River First Bay”, “Love Lake” and other Internet popular scenic spots, and some tourist attractions such as Maoyanhe Lake Tour, Maoyanhe rafting, Tianquanshan National Forest Park, etc. in this area. With the further development of hot spring hotels, tourist characteristic blocks and other projects, Maoyanhe Town has become more prominent in the core position of Zhangjiajie West Route tourism. At the same time, with the gradual increase in the number of tourists, the water quantity of hot springs in the Maoyan River scenic spot can no longer meet the demand of tourism development. Therefore, on the basis of previous geological data and field geological investigation, the authors carried out the exploration of underground hot water resources within the area of the Maoyanhe scenic spot by using natural electric field frequency selection method.

2. Description of the Study Area

2.1. Physiographic Conditions

The research area belongs to the subtropical mountain prototype monsoon humid climate area, which is characterized by warm climate, four distinct seasons, a rainy spring and summer, and often summer drought from July to September. The annual mean temperature is about 16.8 °C and the extreme maximum temperature is 40.7 °C. The annual average sunshine duration is 1449.6 h, the dominant wind direction was east wind, and the frequency of quiet wind was 47.7%. The average annual rainfall is 1336.1 mm [27,28,29,30].
Maoyan River tourist attractions near the cliffs are very dangerous for Zhangjiajie City and Xiangxi city boundaries. The width of the river varies greatly, and the widest part is located at the edge of Maoyanhe Town, about 250 m. The narrowest part is located in the 600 m section of the river downstream of the current scenic hot spring Q07 which is 30~40 m wide. On both sides of this section, there are steep walls tens of meters high, shaped like a throat. Once encountered heavy rain, the river is blocked here, the river level can rise several meters or even more than ten meters in a short time.
Maoyan River is 186~202 m above sea level, and Hanshe—Ganxi is 196~330 m above sea level. It is bounded by the Shenghe River and the Ganxi River, with sand shale low hill-hills and cone-shaped peaks in the north and west. On the SE side, there are low hills composed of carbonate. In the middle of the hill, the slope is gentle, the top of the hill is rounded, and there are many conical peaks on both sides. On the whole, the terrain is low in the middle, and it is undulating to both sides. With the Maoyan River as the boundary, the central valley basin is on both sides of the low mountains—hills. The terrain on the whole NE side is slightly higher, and the SW side is low.
According to the origin of the geomorphology, the geomorphology of the exploration area can be divided into three types: dissolution tectonic geomorphology, denudation tectonic geomorphology, river erosion accumulation geomorphology, and the dissolution tectonic geomorphology can be divided into two sub-types: low platform dissolution depression and low mountain-hill cluster valley.

2.2. Hydrogeological Condition

The strata in and around the exploration area include Paleozoic Ordovician and Silurian, which is a NW trending monoclinal structure. Generally speaking, the strata change from old to new from SE to NW. The Ordovician are mainly composed of Marine carbonate rocks, mainly composed of argillaceous banded limestone, limestone and dolomite. The Silurian system is distributed in the north and west of the area and is composed of shallow Marine clastic rocks. No magmatic rock outcrop was observed in the area (Figure 1).
The exploration area is located in the NW of the regional deep fault Huayuan—Zhangjiajie—Cili fault belt, the NW wing of the ZhongHehu-Yaowan anticline, and the east wing of the Qinganping syncline. The structural traces in this area are mainly NE-trending and NNE-trending, and NW-trending and near-EW-trending are the second-order structures. The main structure of the exploration area and its surrounding area is fault F1, which has a trend of 30° east to the north and a dip to the NW with a dip Angle of 55~60°. The fault zone is argillaceous cementation and poor permeability, which is the main heat-controlling structure formed by hot spring water in the area. F2 fault strikes NW, spreads along the Maoyan River (Namely Lishui River), and leans NE, which is the main water channel for hot spring Q06 to emerge on the surface. F3 fault is spreading north 56° west and is a positive fault with a SW trend and a dip of about 75°, which is the main water-conducting structure of drill hole KT1.
In this area, carbonate rocks are mainly in Ordovician (O) limestone, argillaceous limestone, dolomite, and karst is relatively developed. According to the field investigation, the karst forms developed in the area mainly include dissolved trough (groove) and stone tooth, shaft, water cave, karst funnel, depression, blind valley, karst cave, etc. The anomaly distribution of hot spring water in the exploration area and surrounding area is mainly located in the Maoyan River anomaly area and the Shenghe anomaly area. Hot springs in the Maoyan River anomaly area include Q06, Q07 and Q08, among which Q07 and Q08 are located on the west bank of the Lishui River, within the scope of Yongshun County, Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture, Hunan Province, not within the scope of this survey. Q06 is located in the Maoyan River scenic area, and the highest water temperature is 39.3 °C, which is obviously affected by rainfall. The lowest water temperature is 29.2 °C, and the maximum discharge is 11 L/s. In the past, the maximum water temperature of KT2 was 30.3~46.2 °C, and the water quantity was small. The specific size was unknown. Hot spring Q03 emerged from the anomaly area of Hanshe River. The highest water temperature of SK4, SK5 and KT1 drilled in the past was 28.4~43.7 °C. The hole depth of KT1 is about 305 m, and the self-flow rate of the hole is about 2300 m3/d.
According to the lithology of water-bearing medium, the occurrence condition of groundwater, the water physical properties and the hydrodynamic characteristics, the groundwater in this area can be divided into two categories: clastic rock fissure water and carbonate rock fissure cave water. Carbonate fissure karst cave water can be divided into carbonate fissure karst cave water and carbonate fissure karst cave water with clastic rock. The carbonate fissure karst cave is rich in water, the carbonate fissure karst cave with clastic rock is medium rich in water, and the clastic fissure karst cave is poor in water. The groundwater in the working area is mainly replenished by atmospheric rainfall followed by lateral replenishment between different aquifers. In addition, since the water level difference between the Maoyan River and its tributaries can reach up to ten meters, when the river level is at a high level, it will recharge groundwater in reverse.

3. Methodology

3.1. Natural Electric Field Frequency Selection Method Technology

Limited by the work scope of the site, the geophysical exploration well can only be located within the scope of the Maoyan River Scenic spot. Therefore, the natural electric field frequency selection method (FSM) was adopted to carry out geophysical exploration in this survey, and the specific device form was used to observe the three-frequency method and two pole profile method [31,32,33,34,35]. Due to the abundant groundwater in the field, the underground fault-fissure structures are generally filled with water or mud, showing relatively low resistance characteristics. Therefore, there is an obvious conductivity difference between the target body and the surrounding rock in this work, which is mainly to search for water-bearing bodies with low resistance in relatively high resistance medium [36,37,38].
The natural electric field frequency selection method (FSM, Frequency selection method for short) is an extension and development of the audio telluric current method (AET) and the audio telluric field method (TEF). It is also a further improvement of these two methods. It is a kind of natural electric field method. The natural electric field frequency selection method was first proposed by Liang in 1976 [39]. He called it the electric pulse natural electric field method, and Yang called it the stray current method and used it in karst area [40]. All these methods are based on the work of Soviet geophysicist A.N. Tikhonov and Cagniard, L [41,42]. The theoretical basis of its application is essentially the use of the static effect in the natural electromagnetic method, that is, the static effect is used to identify the existence of abnormal bodies [43].
The natural electric field is mainly caused by the natural electrochemical action of the electronic conductor and the filtration or diffusion action of the ionic conductor in groundwater. Therefore, the natural electric field method is developed. The field source is a DC signal. The natural electric field frequency selection method is different from the conventional natural electric field method. Its field source is an AC signal, which mainly uses the magnetotelluric field [43,44,45]. The causes of the magnetotelluric field are very complex. The main sources are thunderstorm discharge, cosmic rays, slight variation of geomagnetic field and industrial stray current induced by the earth. Nearly all the telluric fields with frequencies over 1 Hz are generated by lightning, except for industrial currents at 50 Hz and high power high-frequency radio messages. On average, space lightning of large and small size can occur more than 100 times per second on the earth. Part of the huge energy of lightning flows into the ground along with the inductive current [46,47,48,49]. The electromagnetic field generated by distant lightning spreads through space and the Earth in the way of conduction wave, forming a relatively gentle and approximately uniform geodetic electric field. Therefore, in the surface of the solid Earth, in the atmosphere and in the oceans, there are electric currents flowing [50,51]. This natural electric field is called the magnetotelluric field, and its direction and strength change over time. Alternating electric fields are always accompanied by alternating magnetic fields, which are collectively referred to as Earth’s magnetotelluric field.
The field sources of passive source method are all very complex, but according to the previous research results, the field source problem of the natural electric field frequency selection method can be summarized into three sources. First, it is believed that its field source is exactly the same as MT, mainly from outside the Earth; The second is the electromagnetic wave emanating upward from the Earth’s inner mantle asthenosphere and the Earth’s magnetic field below. Third, the field source is industrial stray current. Regardless of whether the field source of frequency selection method comes from outside the Earth, inside the Earth, or industrial stray current, the exploration depth of current application of the frequency selection method in underground target exploration is mostly shallow (general <400 m), so the three field sources can be classified as far-field sources. Therefore, it can be considered that the field source of the frequency selection method is the comprehensive effect of the above three sources and other unrecognized electromagnetic field sources.
The natural field frequency selection method measures the horizontal electrical component generated by the telluric electromagnetic field in the audio segment. Its field sources are mainly the three natural alternating electromagnetic fields mentioned above, which is the same with the magnetotelluric method (MT). At a distance from the field source, the electric field and magnetic field components of the three natural alternating electromagnetic fields are horizontal components. Therefore, the field source of natural field frequency selection method is similar to the MT method. The electromagnetic field can be regarded as a plane wave incident perpendicular to the ground (see Figure 1), and its field characteristics obey Maxwell’s equations:
rot H = j + ∂ D / ∂ t
div B = 0
rot E = − ∂ B / ∂ t
div D = q
In the formula, q is the density of free charge; t is time; j is current density; E is electric field intensity; H is magnetic field strength; B is magnetic induction intensity; D is electric displacement.
When the electromagnetic wave propagates in the medium, its amplitude advances 1/distance along the Z-axis perpendicular to the surface, and the amplitude decays 1/e times (about 37%) of the surface. It is customary to take the distance δ = 1/b as the skin depth (or penetration depth) of the electromagnetic wave. In a non-magnetic medium, it can be approximated.
δ = 1 / b ≈ 503.3 × ρ / f
In formula δ is the penetration depth; ρ is resistivity; f is the frequency of electromagnetic wave, b is the attenuation coefficient of electromagnetic wave; e is a constant that is the base of the natural logarithm function.
As can be seen from the above, electric field intensity E decays negatively with the absorption coefficient b. That is, the penetration depth of electromagnetic wave increases with the increase in dielectric resistivity and decreases with the increase in electromagnetic wave frequency, which is the frequency domain characteristic of electromagnetic signal. At the same observation point, the resistivity of the formation is constant, and the purpose of detecting different depths is achieved by choosing different working frequency methods. Therefore, the profile detection result of frequency selection method has the function of both profile and sounding, the low potential and high potential anomalies can be detected above the low resistance body or high resistance body, respectively.
At the same time, because the natural electric field frequency selection method belongs to the category of the natural electromagnetic method, the detection frequency is only different from that of traditional methods, and its detection results also have obvious static effect, which makes the relative anomalies of low or high resistance bodies near the surface more obvious (Figure 2). Static effect is unavoidable in magnetotellus observation. Usually, because MT is mostly detected by deep targets, static migration is generally regarded as interference to suppress or eliminate. As in the early days of seismic exploration, Rayleigh waves were always used as interference signals. To this end, Yang Tianchun et al. recently made a special study on the causes of profile anomalies of the natural electric field frequency selection method and concluded that the profile anomalies were mainly caused by the static effect of electromagnetic method [27,28].

3.2. Layout of Field Survey Line

Since the Maoyan River Scenic Area Development Company is limited to looking for underground hot springs within the perimeter of the scenic area, which is basically completed, construction facilities, ground hardening, relief of terrain, strong artificial interference and other factors bring great difficulties to the selection of geophysical exploration methods and layout of survey lines (Figure 3 and Figure 4). The line laying of the geophysical prospecting method can only be applied flexibly.
A total of 18 surveying lines, namely L1~L18, were laid around the scenic spot in this geophysical exploration work (Figure 4). Since the Maoyan River Scenic Area Development Company limited the final drilling to its red line, survey lines L5, L6, L14 and L15 outside the scenic area are not shown in Figure 4. They are located in the north of the area shown in Figure 4.

4. Results

4.1. Frequency-Selected Exploration Results

The construction of this method is similar to the audio frequency electromagnetic telluric method (AMT), but it only observes one or several horizontal electric field components of different frequencies in the telluric signal along the measured line. For example, the sampling frequency of the selected TC300 frequency selector is 40 frequency points within the range of 12~5000 Hz, and the sampling frequency of the TC500 frequency selector is 56 frequency points within the range of 8~5000 Hz.
During the field exploration, the observation pole distance MN is 10 m, and the observation point distance varies from 1 to 5 m according to the actual situation. Figure 5a shows the three-frequency detection result curve of L7 survey line by frequency selection method. The survey line is located in the parking lot of the scenic spot, and the distance between observation points is 5 m. The horizontal coordinate represents the distance of the profile line, and the vertical coordinate axis represents the potential difference. As can be seen from the results of the detection curve of a (0 in Figure 5), there is an overall relative trend of low potential near 40 m in the middle of the measurement line, but the relative amplitude of the anomaly is not very large. It is speculated that there is a small amount of groundwater under the anomaly point.
Figure 5b shows the three-frequency detection result curve of frequency selection method on the L16 survey line. The survey line is located on the roadside on the east side of the heart-shaped pool in the scenic spot, and the distance between the observation points is 1 m. As can be seen from the curve results in Figure 5b, there are two obvious relatively low potential anomalies at 15 m and 23–24 m in the middle of the measurement line. The anomaly at 15 m has the nature of a single point with poor reliability, while the anomaly curve at 23–24 m has regular shape, wider and slower anomaly range, and greater reliability. In addition, compared with the anomaly on L7, the low potential anomaly on L16 is much more obvious, and it is speculated that the groundwater will be more abundant. Therefore, the relatively low potential anomaly at 23–24 m on the measuring line L16 should be the focus of the next step.
In order to further determine the anomalies near 40 m of line L7 and 24 m of line L16, bipolar profile detection was carried out near these two anomalies.
Figure 6 shows the observation results of bipolar profile method near 40 m of L7 survey line. Figure 6a,b, respectively, show the potential difference between the profile curve and pseudo-sectional diagram. There are 40 observed frequencies at each measuring point, corresponding to 40 profile curves in Figure 6a. Due to the density of the curves, the size of each observed frequency is not marked in the figure. In Figure 6b, the abscissa represents the profile distance, and the ordinate represents the apparent depth obtained after depth inversion. The observation instrument is TC300, and the observation point distance is 2 m. According to the detection results of the bipolar profile in Figure 6, it can be seen that 45 m of profile is a relatively low potential area, and the well formation location can be chosen there. As can be seen from Figure 6b, the potential difference ΔV curve near 45 m of measurement line 7 appears as the “hanging noodle” phenomenon. The contours in depths 0~125 m generally bend downward, the contours in depths 125~200 m generally bend upward, and the contours in depths above 200 m tend to bend downward. According to the results of pseudo section map Figure 6b, it is inferred that there is groundwater in the shallow part of the anomaly within 120 m, and the depth of the deep water may be 200 m later.
Figure 7 shows the observation results of the bipolar section method near 23 m of L16 survey line. Figure 7a,b, respectively, show the potential difference profile curve and pseudo-sectional diagram. There are 56 frequencies observed at each measuring point, corresponding to 56 profile curves in Figure 7a. The e instrument used in the field is TC500, and the observation point distance is 1 m. According to the results of the profile curve in Figure 7a, there is indeed a very obvious relatively low potential anomaly at 23 m of the measuring line. This exception is clearer than the one in Figure 6, and the relative size of the exception is much more obvious. In the potential difference pseudo Figure 7b, the curve near the surface is dense, which is caused by the interpolation of test results and does not affect the analysis of the results. It can be inferred from Figure 7b that the abnormal low potential at 23 m extends from the shallow part to the deep part, and the deeper the burial depth is, 270 m later, the abnormal range of low potential becomes wider, and it is speculated that the deep water may be caused by the development of underground cracks, abundant groundwater and good connectivity. The anomaly characteristics at 23 m on the pseudo-sectional map are obvious reflections of the static effect of electromagnetic method. It is expected that the anomaly at 23 m of line L16 is reliable and can be used as a favorable position for drilling. It is estimated that there is a small amount of groundwater in the depth of 100 m, and there may be very rich groundwater in the depth of 320~470 m.

4.2. Borehole Verification

Drilling holes ZK1 and ZK2 were arranged to verify the geophysical anomaly of L7 and L16 survey lines, respectively (see Figure 4). ZK1 is located in the parking apron of the Maoyan River Scenic spot, that is, 45 m of Line L7. With a drilling depth of 250 m, water-bearing cracks exist only near the depth of about 80 m and 200 m. The well had a water yield of about 100 m3/d and a water temperature of about 22 °C in a 20 cm thick muddy pack near a depth of about 218 m. ZK2 is located at 23 m of line L16, with a well completion depth of 500 m and a water yield of about 1500 m3/d. The shallow 200 m water is less and all of it is cold water. A large amount of groundwater was buried after 250 m, and the temperature increased significantly with the increase in depth. Finally, the temperature after mixing cold and hot water in the well was 34 °C. With the pumping test of ZK2 drilling, it can be seen that the water at the dewpoint of Q06 hot spring is significantly reduced, which also proves that ZK2 has drilled into the hot spring zone. The water temperature in the ZK2 well is expected to rise if the shallow water is isolated.

5. Discussion

The results of three-frequency detection by frequency selection method and the bipolar profile curve are shown in this research. The site selection was based on the results we have obtained. When underground water exists, the potential difference ΔV profile curve will appear obvious abnormal characteristics of low potential. On ΔV pseudo section map, the isoline will appear as the “hanging noodles” phenomenon, which is an obvious reflection of the static effect of electromagnetic method. It can be seen from the verification of drilling results that the more abundant groundwater is, the more obvious the static effect phenomenon is, and the more significant the abnormal characteristics of low potential are on the profile curve. Therefore, the natural electric field frequency selection method is essentially the use of the electromagnetic method of static effect phenomenon and can be called static effect method. The reliability of the frequency selection method is verified by two verification boreholes.
Although the static effect phenomenon of the electromagnetic method can perfectly explain the cause of profile anomaly of the natural electric field frequency selection method, according to the author’s years of practical application and theoretical research, the static effect cannot perfectly explain the abnormal causes of FSM sounding, nor can it reasonably explain the dynamic effect phenomenon of FSM. These problems need to be further studied in the future.

6. Conclusions

This paper mainly discusses the application of the frequency selection method in the exploration of underground hot water in the Maoyanhe Scenic spot, Zhangjiajie City, Hunan Province, in order to illustrate the effectiveness of the frequency selection method in water exploration. The reliability of the frequency selection method is verified by two verification boreholes. The results indicate that the frequency selection method is one of the effective geophysical exploration methods in groundwater exploration.
The natural electric field frequency selection method cannot directly observe the water temperature of groundwater. Hydrology can only affect the conductivity of underground media, and thus has an indirect effect on the exploration of electrical methods, but this effect is almost negligible for the observation of the frequency selection method. Therefore, the temperature anomaly observation of groundwater has to rely on other methods. But the frequency selection method as a simple and portable shallow groundwater exploration method is worth further promotion in the future exploration of water resources.

Author Contributions

Data curation, H.D.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.L. (Yulong Lu); writing—review and editing, Y.L. (Yang Liu); project administration, T.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 42074219), the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2018YFC0603900), the Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province (Grant No.2022JJ30244), the Research Project of Teaching Reform of Hunan Province (Grant No. HNJG-2022-0790) and the Education Department of Hunan Province (No. 16K031).

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Water 15 03418 g001
Figure 1. Geological scheme of the working area.
Figure 1. Geological scheme of the working area.
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Figure 2. Schematic diagram of TM mode electric field response of near-surface low-resistivity anomalous body.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of TM mode electric field response of near-surface low-resistivity anomalous body.
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Figure 3. Site conditions and working photos: (a) By the river (b) In the bamboo forest by the river (c) Roadside scenic spot.
Figure 3. Site conditions and working photos: (a) By the river (b) In the bamboo forest by the river (c) Roadside scenic spot.
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Figure 4. Schematic diagram of field line laying.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of field line laying.
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Figure 5. Results of three-frequency detection by the frequency selection method on line L7 (a) and line L16 (b).
Figure 5. Results of three-frequency detection by the frequency selection method on line L7 (a) and line L16 (b).
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Figure 6. (a) bipolar profile curve and (b) pseudo-sectional diagram on L7. (dash line in (a) means potential abnormal profiles).
Figure 6. (a) bipolar profile curve and (b) pseudo-sectional diagram on L7. (dash line in (a) means potential abnormal profiles).
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Figure 7. (a) bipolar profile curve and (b) pseudo-sectional diagram on L16. (dash line in (a) means potential abnormal profiles).
Figure 7. (a) bipolar profile curve and (b) pseudo-sectional diagram on L16. (dash line in (a) means potential abnormal profiles).
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MDPI and ACS Style

Lu, Y.; Ding, H.; Yang, T.; Liu, Y. Geothermal Water Exploration of the Maoyanhe Hot Spring Scenic Spot in Zhangjiajie Using the Natural Electric Field Frequency Selection Method. Water 2023, 15, 3418. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15193418

AMA Style

Lu Y, Ding H, Yang T, Liu Y. Geothermal Water Exploration of the Maoyanhe Hot Spring Scenic Spot in Zhangjiajie Using the Natural Electric Field Frequency Selection Method. Water. 2023; 15(19):3418. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15193418

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lu, Yulong, Haiyang Ding, Tianchun Yang, and Yang Liu. 2023. "Geothermal Water Exploration of the Maoyanhe Hot Spring Scenic Spot in Zhangjiajie Using the Natural Electric Field Frequency Selection Method" Water 15, no. 19: 3418. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15193418

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