Participation of Local Communities in the Management of Post-Mine Areas in Cities

Abstract

The management of post-mining reservoirs as part of urban blue infrastructure is linked to the implementation of pro-environmental policies at different levels (from local–municipal to European). Local communities, as beneficiaries of measures taken by city authorities, recognise the need for active participation in decision-making processes. They engage in making decisions on blue spaces in urban areas. These include public and natural watercourses and their surroundings, but also water-filled basins of various origins, including post-mining pits. This paper strives to answer how local communities are involved in activities for developing and managing post-mine areas filled with water within city limits. The methods used (including field observation, spatial analyses, and desk research) allowed us to classify post-mining pits according to their functions and the degree of social participation in their development process. The analysed post-mining pits were divided into three groups. The first group consisted of pit reservoirs transformed with the participation of local inhabitants into recreational grounds. The second comprised reservoirs transformed under local zoning plans (with residents consulted) expected to ultimately prop up the city’s green infrastructure. In turn, the third group consists of quasi-natural reservoirs deemed natural enclaves by city residents. The environmental analysis showed that pits were naturalised. One of them was subject to legal protection on account of biodiversity. Post-mine areas in Bydgoszcz play an important environmental role, and some are integral recreational sites, e.g., the Balaton reservoir. They materially affect the inhabitants’ daily contact with nature, which improves life quality.

1. Introduction

Social participation is understood as the involvement of citizens in decision-making processes, including spatial planning and development, at various levels of authority. Depending on the nature of the citizens’ engagement, it can be either individual or social participation (based on collective activities) [1,2]. Wójcicki [2] was correct that, in the process of spatial planning (including that of the urban space), bottom-up initiatives from a group of citizens are significant, and the highest form of participation is joint decision-making (authorisation), where the local administration/local government gives up part of its decision-making competences for the benefit of citizens. Joint decision-making is often based on legal instruments, such as elections, referenda and plebiscites, in which citizens express their opinion on a specific subject. The areas of social interest are largely the ‘landscapes of fear’ [3] or degraded brownfields (including post-mine areas). Due to the large interest in mineral resources, open-cast mining is strongly developed. Apart from brown coal, open-cast mining is used for minerals. This mining resulted in depressions that, after the process is concluded, are reclaimed or abandoned. Reclamation can take various forms, but most often the pits are filled with water. This is also common in urban spaces where mineral deposits are located. These are mainly sand, clay, gravel and till. After the mining ends, they remain as concave forms filled with water [4,5,6]. In urban areas, these reservoirs are developed and have other functions [7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. Like natural reservoirs, they form part of the city’s socio-ecological system [14], and in some areas of Poland are referred to as anthropogenic lake-lands [15]. They have a positive effect on the health and well-being of the inhabitants as places of recreation, relaxation, and education [5], and are significant for the urban economy [16] and play important environmental functions (small storage reservoirs, maintaining biodiversity) [5]. This paper aims to identify the role of local communities in developing degraded land in cities using an example of former mineral mines.

Until 1989 in Poland, the possibilities for local communities to co-determine land use and spatial planning were impossible due to the centralisation of the state. For decades, the creation of urban space has been the domain of urban planners and architects who have introduced model solutions, often forgetting the patterns of shaping space ingrained in the human collective, which have a positive impact on individuals and small social groups, as well as on local communities and larger collectives of city dwellers [17]. Only after the political changes in Poland in the last decade of the 20th century did it become possible for residents to participate in decision-making processes concerning spatial management.

At present, city inhabitants can become involved in activities to improve their life quality. Their activities can be either formalised (for instance through associations) or informal (for instance public consultations) [18].

Nowadays, local governments (e.g., city authorities) increasingly consider possible interactions with representatives of local communities, giving them a chance to express their opinions and decide on issues relevant to them [19].

Accepted methods of community activation include local referenda, public consultation, citizens’ resolution-passing initiatives, local action, complaints, motions, petitions, citizen participation in meetings of local government decision-making bodies, implementation of public tasks, and creation of joint advisory teams [20].

An instrument for discussion and taking democratic solutions is participatory budgeting. Over the past two decades, this has become a popular tool for including local communities in decision-making processes in cities all over the world [21,22,23]. The study of Cabannes [24] indicates that, at the initial stage of the development of participatory projects, the inhabitants focused their activities on supporting local authorities in improving access to municipal services and technical infrastructure: water supply (including the development of water and sewerage networks); development of stormwater sewerage and collecting, processing and removing solid wastes; and developing public transport and mobility. Recently, regarding the interest in supporting initiatives to improve the usability of public spaces that evolve in cities under the influence of the natural environment, human factors and culture has become increasingly evident [25,26]. A rising interest in participation in the development of green and blue spaces is also visible. This stems from the increasing environmental awareness of city inhabitants [25,27] and the fact that they can see the need to create spaces for social interaction, leisure and recreation [28,29,30]. This trend is also observed in Poland (e.g., in Bydgoszcz).

Another commonly used solution is public consultation, which involves seeking the opinion of the public on, for instance, projected investments, their course, etc. In the light of good governance principles, these are nowadays implemented via digital tools, such as social media [31,32].

In light of the aforementioned, it seems reasonable to attempt to answer the following questions: According to city inhabitants and authorities, what are the functions of man-made reservoirs? Are the inhabitants of Bydgoszcz actively involved in activities to develop the existing water reservoirs by submitting participation projects? What is the direction of transformation/development of post-mining reservoirs?

This paper aims to identify the role of local communities in developing degraded land in cities, using an example of former mineral mines. The research procedure was a multi-stage process. First, we analysed the area of the city for the presence of water reservoirs and then identified the reservoirs whose origin is linked to the mining industry through literature research and studying historical cartographic sources. The results were verified during a field inquiry in the first quarter of 2023. This allowed us to determine the status of the management of the selected reservoirs. Next, we analysed projects related to the studied object carried out as part of citizens’ budgets between 2013 and 2022. Another task was to find out how city inhabitants perceive and evaluate the selected pits and their surroundings in terms of space.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Methods

Field observations and queries and literature studies allowed us to put forward the following research hypotheses:

H1. 

Former pits near present-day large housing estates can be seen among local communities and city authorities as potential leisure areas to be incorporated in their development process via social participation;

H2. 

Public activity in co-determining the use of former pits depends on the degree of their current management (the more natural the reservoir, the less the local community participates in the development process).

The hypotheses were verified using cartographic analysis (LIDAR, satellite photos, and topographic map), a field survey, literature studies, and desk research (planning and strategic documents). It should be noted that these methods are widely used in geographical research—including urban studies. They make it possible to detect regularities, e.g., functional, spatial. Historical plans of the city from the 18th to the 20th century [33] were subject to cartographic analysis. Contemporary topographic maps were studied and compared with the results of laser scanning and aerial photographs. The analysis involved the use of Geoportal (Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography, Warsaw, Poland (n.d.)), the raster layers of which were used via links to Web Map Service (WMS). QGIS 3.26.3 (Free Software Foundation, Inc., Boston, MA, USA) software was used to analyse the raster base map. Of the pits identified, those located in public spaces and excluded from continued industrial use were selected for further study (Figure 1). They were then subjected to a field survey accompanied by direct observation. The following elements were highlighted in the survey report: spatial accessibility, development and infrastructure around the reservoirs and the use of land by residents, land cover, and the presence of fauna and flora (including terrestrial and telmatic vegetation).

Using desk research (analysis of legacy data as secondary sources), we analysed planning documents, strategic records, the results of the Bydgoszcz Citizens Budget, micro-grants from KPOWES (Kuyavian–Pomeranian Centre for the Support of the Social Economy V, Bydgoszcz, Poland), and environmental micro-projects, and reviewed the results of public consultation carried out by the city authorities regarding the analysed areas. Attractiveness was also assessed based on Google Maps user reviews (as of 31 March 2023).

2.2. Location and Characteristics of Study Area

The study area was the city of Bydgoszcz, which, since the mid-19th century, has been a significant industrial centre in Poland. The time frame of the study extends historically from the mid-19th century and, in terms of social participation, from 2013 to 2022. The city is inhabited today by 326,434 citizens (Statistics Poland data for 2023). The city space is divided into 42 urban units. Eight out of the 16 existing pits were selected for analysis, and most of them were classified (as a result of a field survey in February 2023) as natural green areas. Together with other water reservoirs of this type and green areas, they constitute the so-called Urban Green Infrastructure, defined as a network of natural and semi-natural areas in the city subject to strategic planning and management to provide the inhabitants with a wide range of ecosystem services [34]. In Bydgoszcz, there are several water reservoirs of various origins forming part of the blue spaces which together account for 734 ha (4%) of the city’s surface area. The reservoirs surveyed cover an area of 31 ha (46% of the total reservoir area). They are situated in various parts of the city and have different origins. Since Bydgoszcz is situated in an area of geomorphological forms associated with mineral deposits, mineral mining started as early as the first half of the 19th century [35]. Bydgoszcz is situated in the Toruń Basin, and precisely on fluvial terraces of rivers such as the Vistula and the Brda (Figure 1). Due to extensive transformations of the urban zone and the thickness of sand and gravel deposits, some deposits that accumulated in the former reservoirs appear on the surface. These are clays. The predominant geological structures are sand and gravel, and from the Leszno phase of the Vistulian (Weichselian), glaciation is occasionally seen on the surface [36]. Their exploitation was dependent on the location of the thickest deposits. Therefore, they can be found in various places in Bydgoszcz.

Man-made reservoirs (Figure 2) include storage reservoirs, settling tanks, fishponds and several water reservoirs in former mining pits. Minerals, such as sand, gravel, clay or till, have been mined in the study area for centuries [4]. Their exploitation intensified in the mid-19th century. This was associated with the fact that the city was incorporated into the all-Prussian railway network, which expanded the city’s market relations and contributed to the dynamic economic development of the area. The railway connection made it possible to export the goods produced. In the second half of the 19th century in Bydgoszcz, the building materials industry was developing intensively. The city had nine active brick yards.

Technological progress associated with the industrial revolution accelerated the development of this sector of the economy. At the end of the 19th century, cement plants manufacturing building components for 43 construction companies were established in Bydgoszcz. At the beginning of the 20th century in the city and its direct vicinity, there were 15 active brickyards (including five within city limits). They employed about 500 workers [37]. Therefore, new pits appeared in the study area. At the beginning of the 20th century, post-mining pits occupied a total area of 60 ha and their maximum number was 119 [38]. This continued until the outbreak of World War II. In the post-war period, and in particular in the 1970s, open-cast mining in Bydgoszcz flourished again. This was associated with the necessity to provide a raw materials base for the construction industry (sand, clay, till) [35]. These industries were primarily located within the urban section of the Brda Valley [39].

Now, some of the former pits are located on private land and are not accessible to inhabitants.

3. Results

3.1. Functions of Man-Made Reservoirs in Urban Spaces

Our studies and analyses of the records of the Department of Urban Planning in Bydgoszcz lead to a conclusion that post-mining pits currently filled with water are an important natural environment element of the urban landscape. Their functions differ depending on their location and degree of development. In light of our findings, the most important is the ecological function, i.e., protecting and supporting biodiversity [6,13,40] and regulating the microclimate (mitigating the urban heat island effect and extreme weather phenomena) [40]. This function of post-mining pits in Bydgoszcz forms part of a wider trend of supporting and protecting green and blue spaces in the city and their sustainable management with the participation of associations and organisations, such as the Polish Angling Association [41].

Next to maintaining biodiversity, these ponds also have an educational function referring to the city’s natural environment (e.g., displaying boards informing about plant and animal habitats). This is corroborated by the results of studies [42] stipulating that blue spaces are an important environment for supporting the health, development and environmental awareness of children. Man-made reservoirs forming linear and non-linear elements of the city’s blue space also have a recreational and leisure function for the local communities [18,43]. In addition, they can contribute to improving the health and well-being of city inhabitants [40]. They are also social interaction areas that bond the local community together and have an aesthetic function. From the point of view of urban spatial planning, due to progressing biogenic processes in post-mining pits and their slopes these forms become permanent elements of the landscape. In addition, they prevent mass movements and surface erosion [13].

3.2. The Role of Local Communities in the Management of Green and Blue Spaces in Cities

The main ways in which Bydgoszcz residents can become involved in the process of developing the former pits’ space are through public consultation and participation in the creation and implementation of the Bydgoszcz Citizens’ Budget projects. Public consultation in Bydgoszcz has been practised for several decades. Since 2017, they have been a responsibility of the dedicated Social Participation Council appointed by the Mayor (Ruling 723/2017 of the Bydgoszcz City Mayor of 29 December 2017 on the appointment of the Social Participation Council) [44]. Research has shown that the participation of residents in voting on projects for the civic budget is increasing constantly (in 2023, on average, one in ten eligible inhabitants voted).

Analysis of the documents showed that, between 2017 and 2023, 2 out of 52 online consultations indirectly referred to areas where former pits are located (the Balaton pit and the Cegielaje pit). Residents showed vivid interest in them, as testified by the count of views and comments. As regards the surroundings of the Balaton reservoir, information about the consultation carried out in January and February 2021 reached more than 84,000 residents, of whom more than 6000 took part in the online consultation. More than 220 comments on the project were posted (e.g., concerning the area of the proposed bathing lake and biodiversity) [45]. Consultation concerning infrastructure near the Cegielaje pit (October 2021) was contributed to by 46857 people, of whom 24 posted comments (two opinions related to the preservation of biodiversity around the reservoir) and 210 people participated in an online meeting [46].

Participatory projects under the so-called Citizens Budget implemented since 2013 and including initiatives to improve the technical infrastructure and the quality of the urban fabric have raised considerably more interest among residents. Our query showed that more than 23% of blue spaces projects from 2013 to 2022 were associated with the examined pits (

Table 1. Blue spaces projects approved under the Bydgoszcz Citizens’ Budget (BBO) from 2013 to 2022.

	Blue Spaces Projects Approved under the BBO	Clay Pit Ponds Projects Approved under the BBO	% of Projects in the Year
2013	3	2	66.7
2014	1	1	100.0
2015	4	3	75.0
2016	4	1	25.0
2017	4	1	25.0
2018	4	0	0.0
2019	10	3	30.0
2020	11	1	9.1
2021	15	2	13.3
2022	12	2	16.7
total	68	16	23.5

Note: own elaboration based on data from Bydgoszcz Citizens’ Budget (BBO).

).

However, most of the completed projects referred to two pits only—the so-called Balaton (in the Bartodzieje housing district) and the pit in the so-called Moon Park (in the Jary housing district).

According to some authors [35,47], the first reclaimed reservoir was the Balaton, extending over an area of 2.73 ha (5.16 ha together with the park environment) which, during the expansion of the Bartodzieje housing district in the 1970s, was transformed from a wasteland into recreational grounds. In the 1970s it was used as a city bathing beach and was a popular site for leisure, sports and recreation not only for the residents of Bartodzieje but also for all city inhabitants. After the slow degradation of the reservoir and the surrounding areas at the turn of the 20th century, city authorities’ initiatives to regenerate the Balaton Pond started (Bydgoszcz1). At present, this area is again a very attractive place, which is reflected by its high Google Maps ratings (on 31 March 2023, for 1820 opinions, the mean rate is 4.6), and the engagement of the local community in the process of space development (for instance, by submitting participatory projects to the BBO). Throughout the term of the participatory budget, 22 projects were submitted for the analysed area, half of which were approved. During the initial years of the budget, residents acquired funds for arranging and developing the grounds around the pond and expanding its recreational facilities (playground, dog park, etc.). Since 2019, the projects completed have been mainly associated with ecology (building bird islands on the pond) and creating a space for social integration (e.g., an open-air cinema in summer). See Figure 3.

Another area of special interest to the inhabitants is the post-mine area in the Jary housing district. In 1997, the city authorities established a local park, known as Moon Park, in this area. Studies by the City Planning Department (MPU) from 2012 describe it as a local park in a dense residential area [48]. Already at that time, signals appeared that further investment in these recreational grounds was necessary. This coincided with the launch of the BBO programme, in which the local community promptly took action regarding their immediate surroundings (green enclaves). During the term of the BBO, four projects in total were submitted (the first in 2013). All of them were approved. Projects completed under the BBO consisted mainly of the expansion of the recreational facilities surrounding the reservoir and the pond itself (2021). Users (mostly parents with children) perceive this area as an attractive place for active recreation, among other reasons thanks to BBO investments (playground, luge track, and multi-purpose sports field). On 31 March 2023, the Google Maps rating of this area was 4.1 (209 opinions). See Figure 4.

The last post-mining pit of interest to the local community is the reservoir in Millennium Park in Stary Fordon. The park extends over an area of 15 ha, and the surface area of the reservoir is 3.5 ha. For decades, the pond was used as a bathing beach. At present, the pit is registered as an official fishery of the Polish Angling Association. Cleaning works (for instance cleaning the pond, green landscaping, walking trails routing) in this area were carried out from 2000 to 2003 [27].

Already ten years ago, the MPU (study by MPU, p. 101) designated Millennium Park as a peri-urban area for leisure and recreation. In the following years, it was also included in the revitalisation project for this part of the city. In 2019, via social participation, the inhabitants decided to equip the area with other recreational facilities. Users of Google Maps evaluate Millennium Park as a place with attractive natural values, charming, but neglected (rated 4.2 based on 226 opinions on 31 March 2023). See Figure 5.

Other analysed post-mining reservoirs can be divided into two groups. The first consisted of two pits (at Siedlecka Street and the Cegielaje pond at Chodkiewicza Street) subject to spatial development as planned. The Cegielaje pond at Chodkiewicza Street is included in the project for the revitalisation of the Bydgoszcz Academy of Music’s campus (Figure 6), and local spatial development plans are under preparation for the pond within the premises of the former paper-making plant at Siedlecka Street with the participation of the inhabitants (public consultation).

The second group comprises three other pits that have not been reclaimed so far and have been left in a quasi-natural state.

A special case is the Academic Ponds that in 2018 were granted a protected area status and were transformed into an ecological area according to Resolution No XLVIII/997/17 of the Bydgoszcz City Council of 13 September 2017 concerning the establishment of an ecological area called “Stawy Akademickie” (“Academic Ponds”) at Rejewskiego Street in Bydgoszcz. They are a sanctuary and a breeding community for many rare species of fauna (13 bird species, 7 reptile species and several species of fish [44]. These are also conventional leisure sites identified with natural enclaves in an urbanised area.

4. Discussion

Contemporary urban policy focuses on addressing the problems and challenges affecting the functioning and development of cities. This is achieved through a number of strategic actions and place-based instruments developed at different levels. At European level, these include the Urban Agenda for the EU, the European Urban Initiative, in Poland, among others [50,51,52]. At the local level, there are documents of a strategic nature for the city of Bydgoszcz m. in. Bydgoszcz 2030 Strategia Rozwoju.

Current urban policy priorities mainly concern sustainable city functioning, including the adaptation of urban space to climate change. At the same time, the need for cooperation between different stakeholders (e.g., citizens) to develop the best solutions for urban space management is emphasised.

Like in other cities, the inhabitants of Bydgoszcz become involved in the development of urban areas, including the existing water reservoirs, through submitting participatory projects. The increasingly popular participatory budgets enable city inhabitants to voice their needs and allocate public funds to local projects prioritised by citizens [6,13,18]. Not only does the citizens’ active participation in space development have a positive effect on building social relations, but is also advantageous in terms of the man–environment relationship. As a result, people act more responsibly regarding their environment/neighbourhood.

Mineral mining grounds on which extraction was discontinued in cities are increasingly often reclaimed and used, among other activities, for recreation and leisure [12,16,53]. During the redevelopment of adjacent land or the revitalisation process, some reservoirs become dominant in the landscape or are a significant element of urban projects (in Bydgoszcz this is the pond next to the Music Academy’s building, under construction, and the Balaton pond). The ponds’ area, as an attractive investment ground, for instance, for housing development, becomes an integral part of the urban fabric. This can contribute to the increased activity of residents in protecting and developing the reservoirs and their surroundings [28,54].

Some flooded pits left without human interference for several dozen years evolve, become subject to secondary succession and, as a result, naturalisation (increase in biodiversity) occurs. As a consequence, they become protected areas (e.g., are entered into the register of ecological areas) [44,55].

Social participation forms an inherent part of contemporary urban management standards, is an important element influencing the effectiveness of city policy and significantly reduces possible conflicts between city authorities and residents [25,56].

The increasingly popular participatory budgets enable city inhabitants to voice their needs and allocate public funds to local projects prioritised by citizens [25,29,30].

A similar situation exists in Bydgoszcz. Its residents are also involved in the development of urban areas, including existing water reservoirs, by participating in public consultation or submitting participatory projects and voting. Not only does the citizens’ active participation in space development have a positive effect on building social relations, but it is also advantageous in terms of the man–environment relationship. As a result, people act more responsibly in relation to their environment/neighbourhood.

5. Conclusions

The research carried out made it possible to create a classification of water reservoirs in the city (Figure 2) and then a typology of post-mine pit reservoirs. The first group consisted of pit reservoirs transformed with the participation of local inhabitants. The second comprised reservoirs transformed under local zoning plans (but after consultation with residents). In turn, the third group consists of quasi-natural reservoirs subject to minimal human intervention.

In light of the results of our study, inhabitants of the big housing districts of Bydgoszcz, such as Bartodzieje or Miedzyń, show more activity in the joint management of post-mine areas (converting them into local recreational grounds). Thus, the results support the first hypothesis (H1). The research results have also corroborated the second hypothesis (H2) concerning the relationship between the degree of development of former mining pits and the activity of local communities.

In the period under review, more grassroots initiatives by residents were undertaken in relation to well-developed reservoirs (e.g., Balaton, Moon Park and Millennium Park). Quasi-natural reservoirs (e.g., the Academic Ponds) were not selected for participatory projects.

It is worth emphasising that the involvement of the residents of Bydgoszcz in decision-making processes concerning, among other things, the development of former mining pits is in line with the concepts of smart city management [57], and third-generation e-government [32,57,58]. Given the strong links between Bydgoszcz and water, in the authors’ opinion further measures are needed to raise public awareness of the impact of blue spaces as an essential urban space component on the quality of life in the city and the need to protect them. Such measures include, for example, social campaigns and activities held among residents in close cooperation with experts, educational institutions, housing estate councils, associations, and religious associations