The Impact of Load-Shedding on Scheduled Water Delivery Services for Mohlaba-Cross Village, Greater Tzaneen, South Africa

Abstract

Reliable potable water is essential for sustaining livelihoods and promoting human well-being, yet many rural communities in South Africa have disrupted and inadequate access. This has been exacerbated by the energy crisis that led to frequent load-shedding. As a water-scarce country, the South African government considers sustainable management of resources as critical to sustaining lives and livelihoods. The lengthy load-shedding schedules prompted the need to investigate how they disrupt scheduled water delivery services using the case of Mohlaba-Cross Village in Limpopo Province. This study investigated the challenges load-shedding poses for water access in already water-deprived communities. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through structured questionnaires, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, observations, and review of documents. Results indicate that load-shedding significantly disrupts scheduled water delivery services, hence daily household chores, livelihoods, local businesses, and economic activities. Some community members resorted to buying water from private vendors, which is unsustainable, especially for low-income households and small businesses. Despite understanding the limitations caused by load-shedding, proactive measures were hindered by a lack of communication and collaboration among key stakeholders. Low pumping capacity and a lack of adaptability in water management posed additional limitations. The study underscores the importance of supply-side interventions by water authorities, such as investing in alternative energy sources and improving pumping capacity to address the interconnected energy and water security challenges. Managing the demand side through promoting water conservation and embracing adaptive management strategies requires effective collaboration by all stakeholders. However, this requires the water authorities to initiate the process. Our study contributes to understanding the energy-water nexus in rural communities and the need for stakeholder engagement to address emerging challenges. It provides insights for policymakers, water managers, businesses, and communities to foster sustainable water management practices and improve the well-being of all.

1. Introduction

Access to clean and reliable water is essential for sustaining human life and promoting public health and the general well-being of people [1]. However, in many parts of developing countries, the consistent provision of basic services such as water faces significant challenges. For instance, load-shedding, which is the temporary cutback of power often caused by power shortages, is necessary to prevent widespread blackouts. Lengthy periods of load-shedding threaten several critical services, such as consistent potable water delivery [2]. Like many other countries in Southern Africa, South Africa is experiencing a critical energy crisis that often leads to frequent power shortages. Consequently, this results in load-shedding to manage electricity demand and prevent grid collapse [3,4]. Eskom, the country’s major electricity provider, has implemented load-shedding ranging from stages 1–8 to balance supply and demand [4].

This energy crisis, persisting for over a decade, disrupts daily life, livelihoods, and local economic activities. Load-shedding’s implications on critical services, such as water delivery, often have far-reaching consequences. This is particularly so for load-shedding schedules lasting up to 12 h on some days [2]. The consequences of load-shedding are felt differently across various regions, sectors, and livelihoods, particularly in rural areas where essential services like water delivery heavily rely on electricity [5]. Like load-shedding, water-shedding is critical considering that South Africa is a water-scarce country [6], and due to frequent droughts in some years and limited water reticulation infrastructure, it becomes necessary to schedule water delivery. Though not ideal, scheduled water deliveries are common in rural South Africa [7]. In some areas, communal taps at strategic points provide water to residents; in others, water is delivered through bowsers [8]. Mohlaba-Cross Village (MCV) in Tzaneen’s local municipality, like many other rural communities in South Africa, relies on scheduled water delivery services to meet the basic needs of its residents. In this village, water delivery is scheduled at specific days and times and is facilitated by electricity-dependent pumping systems [6].

Moreover, water delivery services typically involve water transportation from centralised sources to individual households or community distribution points during the specified days and times. For MCV, during this study, water deliveries were scheduled on Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday between 06:00 and 16:00 hours. However, load-shedding seriously limited the reliability (i.e., consistency and dependability of the scheduled water delivery services) and accessibility of such services, threatening the local population’s health, hygiene, and overall well-being [9]. For instance, deviations from the scheduled water delivery times lasting a few to several hours were considered to reduce the reliability of water delivery. Thus, load-shedding compounds the existing challenges of water scarcity and infrastructure limitations [7]. The timing of load-shedding varied across different areas served by different pumping stations, exacerbating inconsistencies in water availability to the villagers [10]. For instance, MCV depends on two stations in different load-shedding zones for its water supply, the Mohlaba and Letaba Water System Supply. These experienced load-shedding at different times of the day. A ripple effect on water availability thus affects the overall availability of water resources. With limited watering points and finite water supply, conflicts over water access often arise, particularly as pump opening and closure coincide with the morning and evening peak demand periods [11].

Although some privately owned entities often have alternative energy sources such as backup generators and solar [12], such was not the case for most public entities, such as local municipalities. Additionally, public entities are often marred by several other challenges, including limited budgets, mismanagement, corruption, and inadequate human resources, which further constrain service delivery [10]. Therefore, understanding how load-shedding impacts water delivery services in rural communities like Mohlaba-Cross Village becomes critical considering the threats to attaining broader development goals espoused in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [1]. Moreover, most rural areas face numerous access challenges to healthcare, education, and economic opportunities [13]. Thus, load-shedding further compounds these challenges by limiting access to clean water, a fundamental necessity for health, sanitation, and economic activities. The severity of load-shedding in South Africa has increased in the past few years, and the full effects are poorly understood [5,10].

This study has the potential to contribute significantly to rural water resources management in South Africa by igniting discussions on this topic and highlighting the interlinked challenges posed by electricity shortage in rural communities. It underscores the complexities of managing water resources amidst energy crises, offering insights into service disruptions, coping strategies, and long-term socio-economic implications. The findings emphasise the critical need for sustainable solutions to enhance water resilience and mitigate the adverse effects of the energy crisis on public health, sanitation and local economies. However, gaps in the literature remain due to limited comprehensive assessments of adaptive water management strategies under prolonged load-shedding scenarios.

Therefore, this study investigates the effects of load-shedding on water delivery and access in Mohlaba Cross Village to gain insights into the challenges faced by the community and offer some recommendations. Through the examination of the challenges faced by both water utility providers and community members, this case study sheds light on the complex interplay between electricity shortages and water access in rural areas, i.e., the extent of service disruption, coping mechanisms employed by stakeholders, and the potential long-term consequences for human well-being and socio-economic development. Understanding the nexus between energy and water in Mohlaba-Cross Village, our study is critical to developing sustainable solutions ensuring equitable access to safe and reliable water beyond this study area. Therefore, this study’s recommendations are essential for informing policymakers, water managers, local businesses, and community members on the necessary measures to enhance water resilience and mitigate the impacts of energy crises on rural communities in South Africa and beyond.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

Mohlaba is in Greater Tzaneen Local Municipality (Figure 1), Mopani District, in the Limpopo Province of South Africa and spans approximately 8.33 km² and has a population of 12,653 black Africans in 3288 households [14]. Greater Tzaneen Local Municipality is responsible for service delivery, including water delivery. The area experiences a subtropical climate consisting of hot and humid summers, while winters are cool and mild winters [15]. The average daytime temperature in summer (October to March) ranges from 25 °C to 35 °C, with occasional extremes exceeding 40 °C. In winter (May to August), daytime temperatures range from 15 °C to 25 °C. Summer night-time temperatures are usually warm and often accompanied by heavy rainfall, while winter night-time temperatures are cold. The area receives most of its rain in summer, with annual precipitation averaging 898 mm [15].

Based on [14], a greater percentage of the population (63%) is between 25–64 (working age). The average household size is 3.8, with 49.8% of these households being led by women. The area is well constructed, with 94,2% formal dwellings. The area is, however, affected by poor service delivery from the municipality. Weekly refuse collection is very low at 2.4%, with 1.8% of the households having flush toilets connected to the sewerage and 2.6% having piped water inside their houses. A larger population (86.7%) of the houses use electricity for lighting. The area’s economy largely depends on both large-scale and small-scale commercial farming. Households in Mohlaba practice subsistence and small-scale farming activities in horticulture and livestock rearing. In contrast, others are employed on commercial farms, such as ZZ2, which is among the biggest tomato producers in South Africa. Fresh farm products are sold within the community and nearby villages. Other informal businesses in the village include hair salons, spaza shops, tailoring, barbershops, and repair shops. All these require a consistent supply of water. Almost all the households depend on grid electricity except for the few households (new residents) that use firewood for cooking and heating.

2.2. Data Collection

This research employed a mixed-method approach, combining structured survey questionnaires with community members, interviews with water managers, focus group discussion with community members, observations of the local community on scheduled and non-scheduled water delivery days, and a literature search. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected to comprehensively explore the impacts of load-shedding on scheduled water delivery services in Mohlaba-Cross Village. Integrating a survey, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions was deliberate to ensure a holistic understanding of the research problem from multiple perspectives. The survey provided an overview of the community’s experiences and perceptions regarding load-shedding and water challenges. A structured questionnaire was designed and distributed via Google Forms. Random sampling was used to ensure that all households in the village had an equal chance of participating. The survey link was shared through various community WhatsApp groups, facilitating wide distribution and accessibility. The questionnaire included demographic questions and 5-point Likert scale questions to capture different perspectives on the impact of load-shedding on water delivery. Of the 50 individuals who attempted the questionnaire, only 47 responses were completed and used in this study.

Focus group discussions were conducted to gather qualitative data from community members. Sixteen community members were selected based on their lengthy stay within the community (from the demographic information from the survey). This purposive sampling ensured that the participants were knowledgeable about the development of load-shedding and scheduled water delivery challenges. The focus group discussions were also recorded with consent, and the recordings were transcribed for thematic analysis. These discussions provided a platform for community members to share experiences, coping mechanisms, and suggestions for improving water resilience in the face of load-shedding.

Lastly, key informant interviews were conducted to obtain in-depth insights from key stakeholders responsible for water management and users in the village. Two water managers were purposively selected based on their roles within the water delivery sector, while five community members were selected based on their participation in focus group discussions. An interview guide was developed to further explore specific insights and challenges identified through the survey responses. The interviews were conducted with the participant’s consent and recorded for accurate recollection. These interviews were subsequently transcribed for thematic analysis. The qualitative data obtained from these interviews provided a deeper understanding of the systemic challenges and offered potential solutions to the issues caused by load-shedding.

2.3. Data Analysis

Integrating these three data collection methods necessitated a comprehensive analysis of the impact of load-shedding on water delivery services. The survey data provided a quantitative baseline, while the focus group and key informant interviews offered in-depth qualitative insights. Frequencies and percentages were used to analyse the Likert scale responses in Microsoft Excel, while thematic analysis was applied to the transcribed interviews and focus group discussions. This mixed-method approach ensured that the research captured the breadth and depth of the issue, providing a robust foundation for the study’s findings and recommendations. The sequence of these events was planned to first establish a quantitative understanding of the community’s experiences through surveys, followed by a deeper qualitative exploration through interviews and focus group discussions. This methodological approach ensured a comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by the community, guiding the development of informed and practical recommendations for enhancing water resilience and mitigating the impacts of load-shedding.

3. Results

3.1. Demographic Characteristics

Household demographics are shown in

Table 1. Demographic results of the 47 respondents who participated in the study.

Variable	Sub-Variable	Frequency	Percentage
1. Age	21–30	39	84.8
	31–40	4	8.7
	41–50	2	4.3
	51+	1	2.2
2. Gender	Female	34	72.3
	Male	13	27.7
3. Employment status	Formal employment	8	17
	Informal employment	23	48.9
	Not employed	10	21.3
	Prefer not to say	6	12.8
4. Monthly Income	R0–R10,000	33	70.2
	R10,000–R25,000	3	6.4
	R25,000–R50,000	0	0.0
	R50,000 and more	0	0.0
	Prefer not to say	11	23.4
5. Number of people in the household	1–3	6	12.8
	4–6	34	72.3
	7–9	6	12.8
	10+	1	2.1
6. Length of stay in the community	<1 year	0	0
	1–5 years	2	4.3
	6–10 years	2	4.3
	11–15 years	8	17
	16–20 years	12	25.5
	21+ years	23	48.9
7. Level of education	Primary	0	0
	Matric	26	56.3
	Diploma	11	23.4
	Degree	10	21.3
8. Availability of taps in the households	Yes	19	41.3
	No	27	58.7
9. Distance to the nearest tap or water point	0–50 m	15	44.1
	50–200 m	6	17.6
	200–500 m	7	20.6
	More than 500 m	6	17.6

. Of the 47 participants, 34 were female, and 23 were male. Most participants were in the age group 20–30. Many people (n = 28) reported living in MVC for over 21 years. Many participants (n = 33) reported being unemployed, while only (n = 8) reported being employed. Many households (n = 33) reported a monthly income below 10,000, indicating a low income in the community. A total of 27 participants stated that they did not have taps in their homes, highlighting the infrastructure challenges faced by Mohlaba residents in accessing water. In addition, 19 respondents mentioned having water in their homes. Approximately 62% of the respondents (n = 21) lived within a 200 m radius of a communal tap, while 38.2% (n = 13) lived beyond the radius, with some up to a kilometre.

3.2. State of Water Supply in Mohlaba-Cross Village

According to the local water managers’ information, Mohlaba was supplied water by two electricity-powered stations: the Mohlaba station and the Letaba Water System Supply (LWSS) in Nkowa-Nkowa. Water supply was scheduled on Tuesdays, Thursdays, Saturdays, and Sundays between 6 am and 4 pm. Water was first pumped from the Ritavi River into tanks, purified, and prepared for delivery. All these processes depend on the availability of electricity. Water was delivered to designated watering points along the streets, not people’s homes. It was also common for some households to receive little or no water. One of the respondents pointed out:

“The water is supposed to be released from 6 am to 4 pm, but sometimes it doesn’t start flowing until 7 am, and occasionally it is turned off before 4 pm. This is unfair because people have to wait an hour or two after the taps are opened before water can reach the pipes at the watering points”.

The LWSS station pumps water to the Mohlaba station. When the LWSS station experiences load-shedding, no water is pumped to the Mohlaba station. Consequently, residents do not receive water for half of the day. Even when power is restored at LWSS, water delivery to MCV may still be affected by load-shedding affecting Mohlaba station. Several respondents often resorted to buying water from private water vendors during extended periods without accessing water. One community member expressed that they had lost trust in the local municipality. The community member stated:

“For these reasons, we have resorted to other means of water delivery services. We have lost faith in delivery services from our local municipality, as we have been struggling with water delivery issues for years without any assistance from the water managers. Our businesses and daily activities rely on a consistent water supply to thrive, so paying for a water supply is a better option”.

3.3. Load-Shedding Impacts on Reliability and Frequency of Scheduled Water Delivery

The 5-point Likert Scales (Figure 2) summarise respondents’ perceptions regarding load-shedding-induced disruptions to scheduled water delivery. Many of the respondents (76.6%) noted that water delivery had become less reliable due to load-shedding. Almost 94% of the respondents reported that load-shedding made predicting when they would receive water difficult. Several respondents considered the water supply in Mohlaba to have worsened in recent years (65.9%). The results also indicate that load-shedding disrupted daily activities that required consistent water supply, as 89.4% of the respondents reported. The respondents expressed that the local authorities were not doing enough to mitigate the impacts of load-shedding. Additionally, more than half of the respondents expressed dissatisfaction with the water’s quality and cleanliness.

Load-Shedding Effects on Water Delivery Services

Load-shedding schedules occurred in eight stages, each with a certain number of power cuts and hours of load-shedding per day (https://www.eskom.co.za/distribution/customer-service/outages/municipal-loadshedding-schedules/) (accessed on 23 August 2023). Stage 1 is the least aggressive, with power cuts occurring only once for one hour at varying times during the different days of the week. In stage 2, power cuts occur twice, lasting for two hours at each instance at designated times on different days of the week. Stages 3–5 are similar, with power cuts occurring thrice daily, lasting two hours at each instance. Stages 7 and 8 are the most aggressive, with power cuts happening at least thrice daily and lasting for 3–4 h at each instance.

Table 2. The table displays the coexistence of the water delivery schedule designed by local water managers for Mohlaba Cross Village and different load-shedding schedules at various stages, with critical downtime hours highlighted in red.

	Stage 1	Stage 2	Stage 3	Stage 4	Stage 5	Stage 6	Stage 7	Stage 8
Tuesday	0	2	2	2	2	4	4	4
Thursday	0	4	2	3	3	2	3	5
Saturday	1	2	3	4	4	5	5	5
Sunday	0	0	3	3	3	4	5	5

shows the results of the overlaps between scheduled water delivery by the local municipality and load-shedding by Eskom for the different stages on each of the days when water delivery is scheduled.

The water delivery schedule is static, i.e., between 6:00 AM and 4:00 PM on Tuesdays, Thursdays, Saturdays, and Sundays, while load-shedding schedules are dynamic. Changes in load-shedding were announced a few hours beforehand or were imminent, and community members could anticipate the severity of water challenges depending on the load-shedding stage. Table 2 shows the total number of hours of load-shedding between 4:00 AM and 6:00 PM. For stage 1, load-shedding does not occur often during the day, while for stage 2, most days have 2 h of electricity downtime except on Thursdays, where there is a 4 h downtime. Stages 3–5 have downtime ranging from 2 to 4 h during the day, while stages 6 to 8 have a four- or five-hour downtime except on Thursdays. Saturdays and Sundays have downtime ranging between three and five hours during the day for stages 3–8. Stages 6 to 8 have a downtime of at least 4 of the 10 h when water delivery is scheduled.

3.4. Socio-Economic Implications of Load-Shedding

Figure 3 summarises opinions on the socio-economic implications caused by unreliable water delivery due to load-shedding. Most respondents (93.6%) reported that the frequency of power outages significantly affected their access to a reliable water supply. Others reported that load-shedding increased their reliance on private water vendors (89.4%). The participants also highlighted the strain of buying water from private vendors on their household budgets. The effect of load-shedding on water access was also noted by many respondents (87.2%) to be causing tensions in the community and numerous challenges to local businesses and economic activities. For instance, as the water was only available for a few hours, fights often broke out at communal watering points due to disputes around accessing water first.

3.5. Management Strategies for Load-Shedding-Induced Water Delivery Challenges

Respondents’ opinions regarding the management strategies that can be implemented to mitigate the adverse effects of load-shedding on scheduled water delivery are shown in Figure 4. Several measures were considered effective in improving the reliability of scheduled water delivery under different load-shedding regimes. These included the provision of alternative power sources (e.g., generators, solar power) (89.4%), improving communication (85.1%) and collaboration among key stakeholders such as Eskom, Water Managers, and the community (83.0%), increasing the capacity of water storage facilities (76.6%) and implementing demand management strategies (76.6%). These were critical to improving access to scheduled water delivery during load-shedding. An interview with one of the water managers disclosed that:

“The capacity of pumps needs to be upgraded, and the storage (would) receive more water before load-shedding occurs and make it accessible to the community”.

4. Discussion

The study aimed to understand the impact of load-shedding on scheduled water delivery services for Mohlaba-Cross, a rural village in the Tzaneen local municipality in South Africa. Although our study uses a mixed-methods approach to gain insight into the impact of load-shedding, the survey’s small sample size and the focus on a single village may not allow for generalising our findings beyond the study area. Nonetheless, our findings have important implications for other areas experiencing similar challenges. Using mixed methods allowed for triangulating and validating the findings and addressing some of the limitations of a smaller sample size.

More than 90% of the participants had lived in the village for at least ten years, which suggests that they were more aware of the local and historical contexts, including the development of load-shedding and water delivery challenges. Therefore, the perspectives on water delivery services and associated challenges provided by the participants were considered informed and valid. The high number of female respondents (72.3%) suggests that women were more interested in the study due to their active involvement in water-dependent household chores. Several studies in developing countries show that women mostly did household hygiene, sanitation, and cooking [16,17,18,19]. In addition, women were more actively involved in community affairs, particularly in addressing social challenges such as water access, as noted elsewhere [20,21]. Considering the proportion of respondents with homesteads located more than 200 m from the communal taps, a very high proportion of young people in the 20–30 age group, including men of different age groups, were essential in providing a workforce for carrying water.

However, the high proportion of young people could indicate a relatively young population in Mohlaba or an interest of young people in playing a significant role in addressing challenges affecting their community. The high unemployment rate among the respondents concurs with one of the sentiments that buying water from private vendors further strained their household budget. For instance, with many households earning incomes well below ZAR10,000 per month, buying water from private vendors would exert more pressure on household finances. Such households often encounter numerous economic challenges. Hence, continuous water delivery challenges increase their vulnerability as they may be unable to purchase water from private vendors with boreholes installed for such purposes. Fewer households with taps in their homesteads buy water from private vendors who then install pipelines to directly service these homesteads. Such households were among the few respondents who reported travelling less than 50 m to fetch water. Water vending is a common practice in developing countries, and this has led to the emergence of water barons [22].

The pumping processes to abstract raw water and deliver processed water to the community by the local municipality depend on electricity. When the LWSS station experiences load-shedding, no water is pumped to the Mohlaba station. As a result, the residents will not receive water for half of the day. Even when power is restored at LWSS, water delivery to MCV may be affected by load-shedding, causing further inconvenience. This leaves people with little to no water supply for the day. Studies elsewhere confirm the disruptions caused by load-shedding on water delivery services as power outages halt water treatment processes [5,23]. Similarly, any load-shedding affecting the two pumping stations scuttles water delivery in MCV. Considering that water scheduling alone limits water availability, load-shedding worsens the situation. With water delivery scheduled for only ten hours on four days per week, intense load-shedding implies that up to a maximum of 5 h can be lost at each pumping station daily. Delays in the commencement of water delivery and early shutdown also result in more hours lost. A load-shedding period of at least four hours can significantly affect water delivery as time is lost during the load-shedding and the downtime in bringing the system up to speed. Given that water is delivered through communal taps where people take turns to fetch it, there is a higher chance that many would receive little to no water.

The fact that water delivery schedules are static and not responsive to the changes in load-shedding may explain why many respondents felt that local authorities were not doing enough to mitigate the impacts of load-shedding. This shows a lack of adaptability in water delivery, which should be responsive to the prevailing and emerging realities. Since the load-shedding schedules are public, and changes in load-shedding stages are pre-announced for each area, the water managers could use the information to change the timing of water delivery on the scheduled days. For instance, water delivery could be misaligned with load-shedding or compensate for the hours lost during load-shedding rather than sticking to the 6:00 AM to 4:00 PM schedule, even when aggressive load-shedding occurs. The lack of adaptability by the water managers may explain the loss of trust and confidence in the local municipality by many residents. Since many household chores and business activities depend on water, its availability must be predictable, reliable, and consistent.

The residents’ perspectives highlight how load-shedding has reduced the reliability and frequency of water delivery services in Mohlaba. Several studies have highlighted that load-shedding affects the reliability of water delivery, leading to inconsistent service provision [4,6,24]. In areas like Mohlaba, where load-shedding is frequent, it is challenging for residents and businesses to plan their daily activities with limited knowledge of water availability. Various studies conducted in Africa have pointed out that the lack of access to a reliable water supply has a significant impact on the community’s ability to carry out daily tasks, maintain proper hygiene and sanitation practices, engage in local agriculture, and run small businesses that depend on a consistent water supply [5,10]. For instance, recent studies show how load-shedding hinders agricultural and economic activities reliant on water supply [5,25,26].

The dependence on private water vendors during water scarcity is not unique to MCV. In many developing countries, the number of informal water vendors has risen due to water shortages [27]. However, cases of compromised water quality often arise from these informal and unregulated water sources, leading to illnesses that threaten human health [5,25,26]. With indications from the water managers that there was enough storage capacity, local municipalities need to increase the current pumping capacity to ensure enough water is available even during load-shedding. Backup generators and other alternative energy sources, such as solar power and wind turbines, help ensure essential services are not disrupted during power outages [5]. Though alternative power sources such as solar and generators could help alleviate the challenges of power outages, each has its challenges. Generators have substantial operational costs, while solar has high installation costs. Despite the high installation costs, solar power offers a more environmentally friendly option as it does not cause pollution compared to diesel-powered generators [12,28].

There is a need for local municipalities to invest in clean energy sources such as solar and wind to ensure a continuous supply of water during load-shedding. Although investing in alternative energy sources can be a long-term solution, in the meantime, local municipalities must improve their communication systems and collaborate with residents, power utilities (Eskom), local businesses, and other key stakeholders to implement measures that are responsive to the current realities. Studies by [5,29] concur that implementing a solid communication system to inform customers about disruptions in water delivery during load-shedding can help manage expectations and motivate residents to conserve water. Collaborating with communities can also prove critical in addressing the demand side when mutual understanding exists. Additionally, collaborating with Eskom to align load-shedding schedules with water delivery schedules can enhance operational compatibility and mitigate water scarcity in MCV.

5. Conclusions

The study examined the impacts of load-shedding on scheduled water delivery and socio-economic activities in Mohlaba to enhance adaptive management in water delivery services. The water delivery schedule by the local municipality meant that residents received water four days per week (Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday between 6 AM and 4 PM). The pumping processes at the two stations were powered by electricity. The findings highlight some significant limitations of load-shedding on water access, household chores, livelihoods, and economic activities, especially for those solely dependent on local municipalities’ centralised water delivery. The high participation of young people in this study, especially women, underscores their importance in addressing local challenges. Given their central role in household management and community affairs, women are key in addressing water-related issues. There was an apparent lack of communication, collaboration, and engagement by the local authorities and key stakeholders (residents, local businesses, and the power utility), leading to a loss of trust and confidence. Purchasing water from private vendors was not sustainable for low-income households. The study identifies critical interventions, including improving infrastructure to enhance pumping capacity and adopting alternative energy sources like solar power to ensure uninterrupted water supply during load-shedding. Enhancing communication systems and collaboration among key stakeholders were also identified as proactive responses to load-shedding-induced water delivery disruptions. However, our study considers adopting adaptive governance and resilience-building measures imperative to addressing the challenges of energy and water access in rural communities. Through leveraging community knowledge and forging partnerships with stakeholders, local authorities can develop tailored solutions that promote sustainable water management and improve the well-being of residents. Therefore, policymakers must prioritise investments in clean energy and strengthen local governance mechanisms to build resilience against future energy crises and water challenges. Integrating technological innovations, community engagement, and policy coherence could result in more equitable and sustainable water access for all residents in Mohlaba and beyond.