Contaminant of Emerging Concerns in Modder River Catchment of Free State: Implication for Environmental Risk and Water Sources Protection
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Location
2.2. Collection of Water Samples
2.3. Reagents and Materials
2.4. Sample Preparation and Extraction
2.5. Sample Analysis
2.6. Quality Control
2.7. Water Quality Indicators in the Modder River Catchment
2.8. Statistical Analysis and Sources Apportionment
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Analysis of Water Quality Indicators in the Modder River Catchment
3.2. Emerging Contaminants in the Modder River Catchment
3.2.1. The Presence of Emerging Contaminants in Rivers
3.2.2. The Presence of Emerging Contaminants in Dams
3.2.3. The Presence of Emerging Contaminants in Treated Drinking Water
3.3. Emerging Contaminants Pollution Sources in the Modder River Catchment
3.3.1. Pollution Source Identification with Pearson Correlation Analysis
Identification of Pollution Source in Rivers
Identification of Pollution Source in Dams
Identification of Pollution Source in Treated Drinking Water
3.3.2. Pollution Source Identification with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
Identification of Pollution Sources in Rivers
Identification of Pollution Sources in Dams
Identification of Pollution Sources in Treated Drinking Water
3.4. Interventions to Inhibit Water Pollution for Environmental Protection and Sustainability
3.4.1. Wastewater Effluents Discharged in Nearby Streams
3.4.2. Illegal Dumping of Domestic Waste near Water Bodies
3.4.3. Emission from Domestic Sewage Overflow
3.4.4. Emission from Urban Surface Runoff
3.4.5. Emission from Agricultural Activities
4. Conclusions
5. Limitation and Future Studies
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Compound | Summer (n = 12) | Autumn (n = 12) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DF | Min-Max | Mean/±SD | DF | Min-Max | Mean/±SD | |
Rivers (n = 5) | ||||||
Acetaminophen (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Carbamazepine (µg/L) | 4 | 0.40–1.43 | 0.7 ± 0.49 | 4 | <LOQ–0.32 | 0.25 ± 0.07 |
Ibuprofen (µg/L) | 4 | 0.38–2.11 | 1.16 ± 0.76 | 3 | <LOQ–2.26 | 0.92 ± 1.16 |
Triclosan (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Atrazine (mg/L) | 5 | 0.03–0.11 | 0.05 ± 0.03 | 5 | 0.0014–0.03 | 0.69 ± 0.01 |
Metolachlor (mg/L) | 5 | 0.02–0.12 | 0.06 ± 0.04 | 5 | 0.0007–0.03 | 0.02 ± 0.01 |
Simazine (mg/L) | 4 | 0.10–3.22 | 1.041 ± 0.48 | 2 | <LOQ–0.91 | 0.69 ± 0.30 |
Terbuthylazine (mg/L) | 5 | 0.03–0.14 | 0.08 ± 0.05 | 5 | 0.0016–0.03 | 0.01 ± 0.01 |
17-alpha-ethinyl estradiol (µg/L) | 5 | 1.08–14.5 | 7.79 ± 5.34 | 4 | <LOQ–53.80 | 31.55 ± 18.79 |
Estradiol (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Progesterone (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Testosterone (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Dams/reservoirs (n = 5) | ||||||
Acetaminophen (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 1 | <LOQ–0.09 | - |
Carbamazepine (µg/L) | 5 | 0.01–0.21 | 0.12 ± 0.08 | 5 | 0.03–0.19 | 0.08 ± 0.06 |
Ibuprofen (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 2 | <LOQ–0.03 | 0.02 ± 0.01 |
Triclosan (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Atrazine (mg/L) | 5 | 0.02–0.04 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 5 | 0.003–0.02 | 0.01 ± 0.01 |
Metolachlor (mg/L) | 5 | 0.01–0.04 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 5 | 0.01–0.02 | 0.01 ± 0.01 |
Simazine (mg/L) | 4 | <LOQ–0.24 | 0.13 ± 0.11 | 4 | <LOQ–0.29 | 0.12 ± 0.12 |
Terbuthylazine (mg/L) | 5 | 0.02–0.08 | 0.05 ± 0.02 | 5 | 0.003–0.03 | 0.01 ± 0.08 |
17-alpha-ethinyl estradiol (µg/L) | 5 | 0.25–3.40 | 1.83 ± 1.13 | 5 | 1.30–14.80 | 6.90 ± 5.08 |
Estradiol (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Progesterone (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Testosterone (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Treated (tap) drinking water (n = 2) | ||||||
Acetaminophen (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Carbamazepine (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Ibuprofen (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Triclosan (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Atrazine (mg/L) | 2 | 0.02–0.12 | 0.07 ± 0.07 | 2 | 0.01–0.03 | 0.02 ± 0.01 |
Metolachlor (mg/L) | 2 | 0.01–0.09 | 0.05 ± 0.06 | 2 | 0.004–0.04 | 0.02 ± 0.01 |
Simazine (mg/L) | 1 | <LOQ–0.04 | - | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Terbuthylazine (mg/L) | 2 | 0.02–0.16 | 0.09 ± 0.10 | 2 | 0.004–0.02 | 0.01 ± 0.003 |
17-alpha-ethinyl estradiol (µg/L) | 2 | 0.14–0.26 | 0.2 ± 0.08 | 2 | 0.42–1.04 | 0.73 ± 0.40 |
Estradiol (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Progesterone (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
Testosterone (µg/L) | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0 | <LOQ | <LOQ |
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Oke, S.A. Contaminant of Emerging Concerns in Modder River Catchment of Free State: Implication for Environmental Risk and Water Sources Protection. Water 2024, 16, 2494. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172494
Oke SA. Contaminant of Emerging Concerns in Modder River Catchment of Free State: Implication for Environmental Risk and Water Sources Protection. Water. 2024; 16(17):2494. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172494
Chicago/Turabian StyleOke, Saheed Adeyinka. 2024. "Contaminant of Emerging Concerns in Modder River Catchment of Free State: Implication for Environmental Risk and Water Sources Protection" Water 16, no. 17: 2494. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172494