Assessing the Connection between Land Use Planning, Water Resources, and Global Climate Change

Abstract

The complex interplay between land use planning, water resource management, and the effects of global climate change continues to attract global attention. This study assessed the connection between land use planning, water resources, and global climate change. Data were collected using an online questionnaire that was emailed to 320 professionals in the land and environmental sectors in Greece and Europe. The results showed a significant relationship between land use planning, water resources, and their policies with global climate change. It was also revealed that proper land use planning can guide the establishment of waste management systems that minimize methane emissions, and that land use planning influences agricultural practices, which, in turn, impact greenhouse gas emissions. It was also revealed that changes in precipitation patterns can lead to an increased frequency and severity of droughts, and that changes in water temperature and flow can lead to habitat loss. This study also confirmed that strong policy support helps in the conservation of land and water resources, and stakeholder engagement promotes a shared planning process, leading to commonly agreed-upon spatial measures. This study recommends that governments and policymakers should integrate climate change, land use, and water management policies to ensure a coherent and effective approach towards sustainable development.

1. Introduction

Water resources and freshwater ecosystems are impacted by a number of critical variables, including land use change and climatic variability [1,2]. One of the largest environmental concerns facing mankind today is the shift in land use. Population trends, climatic variability, national policies, and macroeconomic activity are just a few of the factors that may lead to land use/land use planning, which, in turn, has a big influence on hydrologic systems at the basin and regional scales [3]. Due to its many effects on water resources, land use planning has gained international attention. Runoff and sediment load are significantly altered by the growth of agricultural land use [4]. A change in land use may alter the hydrological system of the area and have a substantial impact on groundwater recharge and base flow, flood frequency, peak runoff, and total suspended sediment concentration [3,5].

Osaliya (2021) noted that scientists are becoming more concerned about climate change brought on by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and more aware of its serious negative effects on people, the local environment, economy, and safety [6]. Numerous planning academics have concentrated on growth control and sustainability over the last ten years, but not all of them have found a clear link between these two concepts and climate change [7,8,9,10]. Climate change is significantly impacted by land use and land use planning. Recent research has improved our knowledge of the role of land use in climate change; as a result, local initiatives to combat climate change may alter local land use patterns [11,12,13]. Planning for urban and rural areas is best suited to take the lead in addressing the impacts of climate change by encouraging modifications to development practices to reduce GHG emissions and their effects [14,15]. The reason local land use planning is known as the “constitution to guide subsequent development” is because it covers the entirety of a local jurisdiction’s planning area, addresses a wide range of development concerns, articulates the community’s growth aspirations, and represents policy decisions with regard to the future [14]. Local land use plans are crucial for establishing a long-term sustainable goal, drafting adequate land use rules, coordinating cross-boundary planning issues, and carrying out development decisions. They provide a fundamental factual framework for local land management [1,15,16]. Local land use planning can mitigate climate change by modifying land use activities and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, either directly or indirectly, affecting major human-generated sources [17,18].

Despite the fact that many earlier studies focused on assessing plan capacity for managing ecosystems, sustainability, and smart development, no studies have connected local planning capacity to climate change [19,20]. Furthermore, while some studies have started to discuss the role that local land use policies play in climate change, little research has been conducted to find out how to translate climate change concepts into tools for local land use planning and practically incorporate strategies for adaptation and mitigation to local land use planning [1]. Understanding how changes in land use and land cover have affected the availability of water in river sub-catchments is thus necessary. These issues have been made worse by the river basin’s rising need for water abstraction from businesses, residences, and irrigation projects [9,21]. For the management of water resources in the river basin, it is crucial to look at the relationship between changes in land use and land cover and hydrological processes. These help policymakers, local governing bodies, and decision makers create and execute suitable response plans to lower the negative effects of changing land use and land cover on water resources [22]. Hence, the aim of this study was to investigate the connection between land use planning, water resources, and global climate change.

This study majorly assessed the connection between land use planning, water resources, and global climate change. This study also sought to identify the different aspects of land use planning that influence global climate change, examine the influence of water resource management on global climate change, and establish the effects of land use and water resource-based policies in relation to managing climate change. The research question of this study was: How do the different aspects of land use planning, water resource management, and land use and water resource-based policies influence global climate change? Our hypothesis stated that land use planning, water resource management, and land use and water resource-based policies are all significantly related to climate change.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Land Use and Climate Change

The distribution of ecosystems and their related energy (such as latent and sensible heat and radiative exchanges) and mass (such as water vapor, trace gases, and particles) fluxes are altered by human activities, which, in turn, affect climate change [19,23,24]. Energy and mass fluxes may be directly impacted by changes in land cover patterns at the landscape scale [12,25].

Liu et al. [23] revealed that decisions on land use have a significant impact on water supplies. Deforestation may interfere with river flow control, while impermeable surfaces brought on by urban growth can result in increased surface water runoff and floods [26,27,28]. Effective land use planning may assist in conserving sensitive wetlands, maintaining permeable surfaces that help retain water, and safeguarding important watersheds. The promotion of sustainable land use practices may reduce the adverse effects on water resources. Tools that can achieve this include zoning restrictions, green infrastructure, and the preservation of natural landscapes [29].

The geographic alternation of bands of transpiring plants with dry soil on a scale of many kilometers may impact air circulation and cloud formation [30,31]. The dissimilar characteristics of surrounding land cover types may induce convection because of the impact of land surface features on surface temperatures or latent heat transport, which enhances clouds and precipitation [1]. Increased albedo and the climatic effects that follow are also caused by changes in the characteristics of the land’s surface [19,32,33]. Localized warming or cooling may result from changes in land cover; normally, as albedo increases, surface temperatures decrease. Savanna vegetation overgrazing may alter the surface albedo and surface water budget, which may disturb regional circulation and patterns of rainfall and result in desertification [29,34]. Furthermore, excessive grazing may increase the amount of suspended dust, which leads to radiative cooling and a reduction in precipitation [7].

Global pollution from agriculture and urbanization has risen throughout the current geological period, known as the Anthropocene, at the same time as warming trends and climatic extremes have become more frequent and intense [35,36]. Climate change and land use may affect how well an ecosystem retains water. Infiltration and groundwater storage may be decreased by increasing the amount of artificial drainage and impermeable surface area in metropolitan areas [10,37]. Increased runoff and nitrogen loading into streams in mountainous areas are also caused by diminished storage in melting snowpacks [26]. Wamucii et al. [19] also looked at the future of changing water demand and availability, which has significant consequences for the viability of communities in the Middle East and North Africa. Up to 2029, they forecast a considerable reduction in Morocco’s water resources and a rise in water demand [12]. Especially during times of water stress under drought circumstances, increased consumption for irrigation has resulted in lower aquifer storage, which has led to a decline in water availability [38,39].

Groundwater recharging has given way to the artificial storage of surface waters behind dams on a global scale [40,41]. An important turning point in Anthropocene water management occurred during the industrial revolution at the beginning of the 19th century, when connectivity and flow regimes experienced fast changes that harmed fish passage and altered sediment dynamics [18]. At the beginning of the 20th century, dams also expedited the transformation of semi-arid and desert regions [16].

Human activities alter ecosystem hydrology and water flow throughout time [9,42,43,44]. Management may be required to handle water shortages and poor water quality, such as availability of clean drinking water, water scarcity, and surplus water, such as storm water runoff [45]. Additionally, there is nonstationary change in the climate and water, and regional climatic extremes are growing [42]. Hydrologically unfavorable regions must adjust by spending money on infrastructure that will store and manage water. Fresh water is not distributed equally over the world, with many places obtaining too little or too much water, as seen in this Special Issue, and this will affect regional variances in the phases of the global water crisis [43,44].

Incorporating the effects of climate change into all facets of land use planning may help in limiting the probability that climate hazards, including floods, droughts, water shortages, and heat stress, would jeopardize priceless assets [46]. Land plays a crucial part in the global cycle of greenhouse gases (GHGs), with the primary GHGs being carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) [47].

2.2. Water Resources and Climate Change

Water resources are essential for both our society and the environment. A reliable source of clean drinking water is essential for maintaining our health [12]. In addition, water is essential for agriculture, industries, navigation, and the production of power. Numerous of these uses put stress on water resources, which stresses are likely to become worse due to climate change [46]. In many places, it is predicted that climate change would lead to diminished water supplies and rising water demand [23,46,48]. This shifting balance would make it difficult for water managers to meet the needs of growing people, vulnerable ecosystems, farmers, ranchers, energy producers, and manufacturers all at once [22,49].

Over the last 50 years, there has been an increase in the amount of rain that falls during exceptionally high precipitation events over the majority of the United States [50]. The Northeast, Midwest, and upper Great Plains had the highest increases in the amount of rain that fell during the storms that were the most intense by 1%, increasing by more than 30% [51]. In addition, snow begins melting earlier in the year as temperatures increase. This alters the timing of the streamflow in rivers, whose sources are hills [52]. As the temperature increases, both people and animals need more water to be healthy and thrive [53]. In addition, water is required for several important economic processes, such as the production of energy at power plants, the care of animals, and the development of agricultural products [23,45,54]. There may be less water available for these activities when the Earth warms and if there is more competition for water resources [55,56].

Climate change has a wide range of effects on water supplies [4,52,57]. Water shortages in some areas and higher flood hazards in others may be brought about through altered precipitation patterns, warming temperatures, and shifting hydrological cycles [49]. Freshwater supplies in coastal locations may be threatened by sea level rise and saltwater intrusion, which may have an impact on ecosystems and human populations [57]. In locations where rainfall is increasing, water quality may decrease. For instance, an increase in heavy precipitation events may have an impact on the water infrastructure in the Northeast and the Midwest by taxing sewage systems and water treatment plants [58].

Wamucii et al. [19] noted that freshwater supplies along the beach are in jeopardy due to sea level rise. When the sea level rises, saltwater invades freshwater environments. This may force water managers to explore other freshwater sources or increase the need for desalination for certain coastal aquifers of freshwater that are used as drinking water sources [23,45,54]. Additionally, as rivers lose more water that is fresh for human use, saltwater will move farther upstream [19].

2.3. Global Climate Change

In the worldwide cycle of greenhouse gases (GHGs), with the main GHGs being carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O), land plays a significant role [59,60]. These greenhouse gases may either be removed from the atmosphere or released into it as a consequence of land use activities [13]. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, land use may considerably help with climate change mitigation, notably through promoting an equitable use of forests, oceans, and other terrestrial, coastal, and marine ecosystems [38]. In order to ensure that food production is not jeopardized, it is crucial to ensure that land use practices are conducive to effective adaptation to climate change, as stated in this Convention [14,26].

The Paris Agreement’s Article 5 reiterates the significance of current initiatives to reduce climate change via land use actions, especially those connected to forests and REDD+ [61,62]. In their intended contributions determined by the nation (INDCs) and nationally determined contributions (NDCs), parties have also incorporated a variety of land use activities. Hurricanes, heatwaves, droughts, and heavy rains were becoming more common and severe weather occurrences in many parts of the globe [3,63]. These occurrences often have a connection to climate change and significantly affected ecosystems, businesses, and societies [22].

Wamucii et al. [19] noted that the Earth’s climate has changed significantly over the last several decades, which has had a variety of negative effects on the environment, our society, and the economy. Extreme heat events have increased in their frequency and intensity as a consequence, putting ecosystems under stress and posing health hazards [64,65]. Precipitation pattern changes are another important effect of climate change. While some areas have extended droughts, others have more extreme rains and floods [49]. The infrastructure, water resources, and agriculture may be impacted by these changes in the water supply [14].

Sea levels are increasing as a result of melting glaciers, and saltwater expanding as a result of global warming [58]. The infrastructure, ecology, and coastal populations are all seriously threatened by this occurrence. Due to the increased danger of floods, erosive erosion, and saltwater intrusion in low-lying regions, careful planning and investments in coastal resilience are required [1,16,66]. Research has also shown that rising carbon dioxide levels have an impact on the seas in addition to the atmosphere [3,11,29]. Ocean acidification, which is brought on by saltwater absorbing CO₂, may be detrimental to marine life, especially coral reefs and shellfish [67,68]. The loss of these ecosystems raises concerns for both environmental and financial reasons since they offer essential services like fisheries and coastal protection [69].

3. Materials and Methods

This section presents a detailed explanation of the methods, tools, and sampling techniques used in this study. This section also explains the techniques used in analyzing the data collected from the land and environmental experts.

3.1. Research Design

This study used a quantitative research methodology and a cross-sectional survey research design. The cross-sectional survey design depends on a detailed investigation of a group or event in order to unearth the roots of various underlying principles related to the research topic or study subject. This cross-sectional research technique made it easy for us to concentrate on the specific and compelling traits of experts in the land and environmental sectors with respect to the relationship between land use planning, water resources, and global climate change.

3.2. Target Population

This research was directed at various experts working in the land and environmental sectors across Greece, a country that is in the European Union. The respondents were members of the Geotechnical Chamber of Greece and the Union of Environmentalists of Greece. The best suitable sample for this research to understand the connection between land use planning, water resources, and global climate change was chosen from this community.

3.3. Sample Size and Sampling Technique

The sample size was determined after assessing the survey’s reliability (P = 99.7%) and accuracy. A preliminary sample (or pilot sample) of 50 people was used to determine the variation of the weekly commute distance (commutes) that was solely used for work. The results were S² = 4,183,876.29 and s = 2045.45, respectively. When using the sample size calculation, a value of z = 3 was often used, which translates to a level of dependability of P = 99.7%. The value of z was determined using the needed degree of dependability (P). Using our values of N = 50,000 (population of respondents), s = 2045.45 (standard deviation of the sample), z = 3 (value corresponding to a level of dependability P = 99.7%), and d = 429.24, with Equation (1), we determined that the minimum sample size should be 319.83, or 320 individuals (than 429.24—the required precision d was chosen to represent the population better at less than half the confidence interval) [15,25,39,63].

$$\mathrm{n}=\frac{\mathrm{N}{\left(\mathrm{z}\mathrm{s}\right)}^2}{{\mathrm{N}\mathrm{d}}^2+{\left(\mathrm{z}\mathrm{s}\right)}^2}$$

(1)

The minimum sample of respondents required was calculated as follows:

$$\mathrm{n}=\frac{50.000{\left(3\mathrm{*}2045.45\right)}^2}{{50.000\mathrm{*}342.02}^2+{\left(3\mathrm{*}2045.45\right)}^2}\iff \mathrm{n}=319.83\approx 320$$

where $\mathrm{n}$ is the minimum sample of respondents; $\mathrm{d}$ is the needed precision; $\mathrm{N}$ is the total population; $\mathrm{s}$ is the population proportion; and $\mathrm{z}$ is the critical value. Therefore, the sample size of this study was 320 respondents. A purposive sampling technique was used to select the representative sample for this study.

3.4. Data Collection

Data from the chosen experts in the land and environmental sectors throughout Europe were gathered using an online survey questionnaire. Data collection was only started when the participants gave their informed consent through email, and it was confirmed they were willing to participate in this study. The data collected were useful in establishing relationships between the study variables and in providing responses to the research questions. The questionnaire had a variety of inquiry-based questions on the relationship between global climate change, water resources, and land use planning.

3.5. Data Analysis

The data collected using the questionnaire were well sported, coded, and transferred to SPSS Version 20.0 for analysis. The SPSS tool was used since it has very reliable statistical features that help in analyzing and comparing data across different levels of analyses. The findings were tabulated, and frequencies and percentages were used to analyze them. Pearson’s rank correlation was used to establish the relationship between the different study variables. The cumulative predictive ability of the different independent variables on the study’s dependent variable was calculated using regression analysis. A multiple regression model (Equation (2)) was required in this situation to determine various predicted values:

$$\mathrm{Y}={\mathsf{\beta }}_0+{\mathsf{\beta }}_1{\mathrm{X}}_1+{\mathsf{\beta }}_2{\mathrm{X}}_2+{\mathsf{\beta }}_3{\mathrm{X}}_3+\mathsf{\epsilon }\dots \dots \dots \dots \dots \dots .1$$

(2)

where Y = global climate change; β₀ = a constant (a coefficient of intercept)$; {\mathrm{X}}_1$ = land use planning$; {\mathrm{X}}_2$ = water resources$; {\mathrm{X}}_3$ = land use planning and water resources’ policies; and$\mathsf{\epsilon }$ = the error term in the multiple regression model. The different hypotheses of this study were tested at the 5% (0.05) level of significance throughout this study. Figure 1 shows the interaction or interdependence between land use change and climate change [35].

3.6. Ethical Considerations

The researchers ensured that informed permission was acquired in order to validate participants’ willingness to participate in this study. Confidentiality and privacy were also preserved while dealing with respondents’ data. Finally, respondents were allowed to answer questions depending on their understanding of the various opinion questions.

4. Results

This section consists of the results of this study and their interpretation.

4.1. Descriptive Statistics

The personal data of the respondents are presented in

Table 1. Personal data of the respondents.

Variable	Characteristic	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Gender	Male	196	61.3
	Female	124	38.7
Age	Below 25 years	9	2.8
	25–35 years	93	29.1
	36–45 years	167	52.2
	Above 45 years	51	15.9
Level of education	Certificate	13	4.1
	Diploma	43	13.4
	Degree	264	82.5
Experience	0–5 years	41	12.8
	6–15 years	85	26.6
	Above 15 years	194	60.6
	Total	320	100

Note: Source: survey (2023).

.

The results in Table 1 show that the majority of the respondents were male (61.3%), and females were only 38.7%. Furthermore, the majority of respondents were between 36 and 45 years of age (52.2%), implying that the data were collected from individuals of a mature age who had the ability to clearly articulate issues concerning the connection between land use planning, water resources, and global climate change. Also, most respondents (60.6%) had an experience level of above 15 years, indicating that they were highly experienced in their respective sectors.

From

Table 2. Responses to land use planning.

Item	Percentage of Responses (%)
	SD	D	NS	A	SA
Proper land use planning can guide the establishment of waste management systems that minimize methane emissions.	1.4	6.2	9.5	68.8	14.1
I think changes in land use have affected ecosystem services related to water resources, such as flood regulation.	7.6	16.9	11.6	52.4	21.4
I think land use planning can protect and restore ecosystems to aid in climate change mitigation.	2.4	3.1	12.6	56.5	25.4
Land use planning influences agricultural practices, which, in turn, impact greenhouse gas emissions.	4.6	17.5	24.2	36.2	17.5
I think land use decisions can lead to deforestation.	5.0	15.0	45.0	13.5	21.5

Key: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, NS = not sure, A = agree, and SA = strongly agree. Source: survey (2023).

, most of the respondents (68.8%) agreed that proper land use planning can guide the establishment of waste management systems that minimize methane emissions. This is an indication that a reduction in different emissions can be achieved through utilizing well-designed waste management systems. Slightly more than half of the respondents (52.4%) agreed that changes in land use have affected ecosystem services related to water resources, such as flood regulation. Furthermore, 56.5% of respondents agreed that land use planning can protect and restore ecosystems to aid in climate change mitigation. Also, most respondents (36.2%) thought that land use planning can influence agricultural practices, which, in turn, impact greenhouse gas emissions, whereas 45% were indifferent on whether land use decisions can lead to deforestation. These results show that there is a relationship between land use planning and the level of greenhouse emissions, which are all associated with different agricultural practices. However, it is also clear that there could be limited knowledge among people with regard to the effect of land use decisions on deforestation. On a general note, these results show that there is a great relationship between land use planning practices and climate change aspects such as emissions, water resources, and other different ecosystems.

According to the results in

Table 3. Responses to water resources.

Item	Percentage of Responses (%)
	SD	D	NS	A	SA
Managing water resources effectively is crucial for adapting to and mitigating the impacts of climate change.	5.2	7.1	14.1	21.2	52.3
Some water-related processes can contribute to climate change feedback loops.	9.6	0.0	11.4	67.5	11.4
As sea levels rise, saltwater intrusion can contaminate freshwater sources in coastal areas.	0.0	0.0	16.0	51.5	32.5
Changes in precipitation patterns can lead to an increased frequency and severity of droughts.	10.1	12.8	0.0	54.8	22.3
Changes in water temperature and flow can lead to habitat loss.	5.5	13.7	26.6	49.2	5.0
Melting glaciers and reduced snowfall in mountainous regions impact the availability of freshwater downstream.	6.8	3.7	16.5	53.8	19.3

Key: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, NS = not sure, A = agree, and SA = strongly agree. Source: survey (2023).

, most respondents (52.3%) strongly agreed that managing water resources effectively is crucial for adapting to and mitigating the impacts of climate change. This result underscores the role played by better resource management practices towards mitigating the effects of climate change. More than half of the participants (67.5%) agreed that some water-related processes can contribute to climate change feedback loops. Furthermore, most respondents (51.5%) agreed that as sea levels rise, saltwater intrusion can contaminate freshwater sources in coastal areas, and 54.8% agreed that changes in precipitation patterns can lead to an increased frequency and severity of droughts. It was also agreed upon by most participants (49.2%) that changes in water temperature and flow can lead to habitat loss. Finally, 53.8% of respondents agreed that melting glaciers and reduced snowfall in mountainous regions impact the availability of freshwater downstream.

According to the results in

Table 4. Responses to land use- and water resource-based policies.

Item	Percentage of Responses (%)
	SD	D	NS	A	SA
Global policies and subsidies strongly influence land use changes at the regional scale.	8.2	4.1	13.7	61.6	12.3
Strong policy support helps in the conservation of land and water resources.	0.0	0.0	12.3	47.9	39.7
Stakeholder engagement promotes a shared planning process, leading to commonly agreed spatial measures.	16.4	0.0	0.0	41.1	42.5
Governments need to develop policies that consider the impacts of climate change on land and water resources.	12.3	32.9	0.0	54.8	0.0
Weak governance underpins land degradation and can exacerbate conflicts over the use of land.	10.5	13.7	20.5	19.2	56.6
A strong policy is a key driver for the implementation of the planned measures.	2.5	21.5	22.5	45.0	8.8
I think well-designed policies help improve land use planning.	2.5	10.0	12.5	52.5	21.2

Key: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, NS = not sure, A = agree, and SA = strongly agree. Source: survey (2023).

, the majority of respondents (61.6%) agreed that global policies and subsidies strongly influence land use changes at the regional scale. Most respondents (47.9%) agreed that strong policy support helps in the conservation of water resources. It was strongly agreed by 42.5% of respondents that stakeholder engagement promotes a shared planning process leading to commonly agreed spatial measures. Furthermore, 54.8% of the respondents agreed that governments need to develop policies that consider the impacts of climate change on land and water resources. More than half of respondents (56.6%) strongly agreed that weak governance underpins land degradation and can exacerbate conflicts over the use of land. It was further agreed upon by 45% of participants that a strong policy is a key driver for the implementation of the planned measures. Finally, the majority of respondents (52.5%) agreed that they think well-designed policies help improve land use planning. This result implies that policy frameworks play a key role in facilitating the effectiveness of land use planning practices. Therefore, the absence of clear policies or regulations greatly affects the applicability of different land use practices, which can then negatively influence climate change.

This study also identified the different aspects of global climate change, and the results are presented in Figure 2.

The results in Figure 2 show that climate change is mostly associated with intense droughts (38.7%), followed by declining biodiversity (25.1%), very heavy rainfall (18.3%), melting polar ice (8.9%), and raising sea levels (6.3%). However, 2.7% of the participants mentioned other aspects of climate change, such as increases in ocean temperatures and water scarcity.

4.2. Inferential Statistics

Table 5. Correlation between land use planning and climate change.

		Land Use Planning	Global Climate Change
Land use planning	Pearson correlation	1	0.393 **
	Sig. (2-tailed)		0.000
	N	320	320
Global climate change	Pearson correlation	0.393 **	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.000
	N	320	320

Note: **—correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

presents the Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficients of the relationship between land use planning and climate change.

The first hypothesis stated that land use planning is significantly related to global climate change. The findings in Table 5 show that there is a statistically significant positive correlation between the land use planning scores and climate change scores (r = 0.393, p < 0.01). Since the p-value is below 0.001, this implies that aspects of land use planning, such as zoning regulations and building codes, can impact the energy efficiency of buildings. Well-planned land use can promote energy-efficient construction and the use of renewable energy sources. This hypothesis was accepted, and it was concluded that land use planning is significantly related to global climate change.

The results in

Table 6. Correlation between water resources and climate change.

		Water Resources	Global Climate Change
Water resources	Pearson correlation	1	0.511 **
	Sig. (2-tailed)		0.005
	N	320	320
Global climate change	Pearson correlation	0.511 **	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.005
	N	320	320

Note: **—correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

show that there is a statistically significant positive correlation between water resources and global climate change (r = 0.511, p < 0.01). This implies that managing water resources effectively is crucial for adapting to and mitigating the impacts of climate change. Since the p-value is smaller in magnitude than the level of significance, we retained hypothesis 2 and concluded that water resource management is significantly related to climate change.

According to the third hypothesis, climate change is strongly influenced by policies based on land use and water resources. The findings demonstrate a statistically significant positive link between policies based on land use and water resources and climate change (r = 0.292, p < 0.01,

Table 7. Correlation between land use- and water resource-based policies and climate change.

		Land Use- and Water Resource-Based Policies	Global Climate Change
Land use- and water resources-based policies	Pearson correlation	1	0.292 **
	Sig. (2-tailed)		0.008
	N	320	320
Global climate change	Pearson correlation	0.292 **	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.008
	N	320	320

Note: **—Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

). This suggests that strong governmental backing aids in the preservation of natural resources like land and water. This hypothesis is maintained, and it is determined that land use and water resource-based policies are strongly connected to climate change since the p-value is less than the level of significance (p < 0.01) and is smaller in size.

4.3. Regression Analysis

Regression analysis helped us to understand how the independent variables (land use planning, water resources, and land use planning and water resource policies) affect the dependent variable, i.e., global climate change. The results are presented in

Table 8. Multiple regression analysis.

Model	Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig.
	B	Std. Error	Beta
Constant	38.34	4.67		4.90	0.00
Land use planning	−0.054	0.132	−0.046	−0.272	0.001
Water resources	0.543	0.065	0.550	4.76	0.000
Land use planning and water resource policies	0.373	0.015	0.241	1.38	0.020
Model	R square	Adjusted R square	F	Sig.
	0.284	0.597	23.84	0.00

Note: dependent variable: global climate change.

.

The results from Table 8 indicate that 59.7% of the variation in global climate change could be attributed to the independent attributes of land use planning (p = 0.001, Beta = 0.46, t = 0.272), water resources (p = 0.00, Beta = 0.55, t = 4.76), and land use planning and water resource policies. Land use planning, water resources, and land use planning and water resource policies were all determined to be statistically significant predictions of global climate change.

5. Discussion

This study assessed the connection between land use planning, water resources, and global climate change. It was revealed that land use planning, water resources, and land use planning and water resource policies were all statistically significant predictions of global climate change. The results showed that planning for land use, managing water resources, and addressing global climate change are intricately intertwined. The process of arranging and regulating land use in a manner that supports sustainable development and strikes a balance between diverse requirements, including those for housing, agriculture, industry, and conservation, is known as land use planning [47,70]. This planning has enormous effects on climate change and water resources. Water distribution, quality, and availability are directly impacted by choices about land use.

These results agree with most past studies that explain the essentiality of water supplies for both reducing climate change and adapting to it [62,71]. Oceans and forests are examples of water-based ecosystems that operate as carbon sinks, soaking up a large percentage of the carbon dioxide produced by human activity [29]. Water resources are also necessary for the generation of renewable energy, notably hydropower and solar thermal energy [23,46,48]. These sources may aid in lowering greenhouse gas emissions, which will help to slow down climate change [3,38].

Increased impermeable surfaces that arise from poorly designed urbanization may cause fast runoff during rainstorms, which can cause floods and diminished groundwater recharge [72,73]. Planning for land use appropriately may assist in conserving watersheds, maintaining natural water retention areas, and guaranteeing the sustainable use of water resources. Water bodies may become contaminated as a result of poor land use decisions because runoff from industrial zones, agricultural fields, and highways carries contaminants [12,74]. By constructing buffer zones around waterways, adopting green infrastructure strategies, and supporting responsible waste disposal, proper land use planning may take steps to reduce pollution [14,16,58].

This study showed that that land use planning is significantly related to global climate change. Carbon sinks are made up of natural landscapes, such as forests, marshes, and other natural environments, that are capable of collecting and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere [9]. These results agree with most past studies that revealed that deforestation and land degradation both result in the release of carbon that has been stored, which, in turn, reduces the ability of the earth to store carbon [4,26,36]. These ecosystems may be protected and restored with the assistance of land use planning, which can contribute to the mitigation of climate change [26]. The urban heat island effect refers to the propensity for highly inhabited, concrete-surfaced metropolitan areas to have a higher average temperature than the rural areas that are located nearby. It is possible that this will make the heat waves worse and increase the amount of power that is required for cooling. The incorporation of green spaces, parks, and green roofs into strategic land use planning might be instrumental in mitigating the effects of the heat island effect and improving the microclimates of urban areas [1,66]. The decisions that are made about land use have an effect on the interdependence of the water, energy, and food systems. Agriculture consumes a significant quantity of water and has the potential to influence the quality of water via runoff and irrigation practices. It is possible that efficient land use planning might help maximize the use of water in agriculture, reduce the amount of energy that is used, and promote the production of food in a sustainable manner [75,76]. It is possible that those who make poor decisions on land use would be more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as rising sea levels and floods. It is possible that communities would be uprooted and catastrophic damages may ensue if construction in flood-prone areas is carried out without taking into consideration the rising sea levels [25,63,77]. Effective land use planning should take climate resilience into consideration by avoiding high-risk development locations so as to maximize energy efficiency [18].

These findings show that planning for land use involves making choices about how it will be used for various uses, including residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural, and natural areas [78]. Urban planning, transportation, and the preservation of open areas are all influenced by these choices. It is crucial to keep in mind, however, that poorly planned urbanization may result in greater greenhouse gas emissions owing to higher energy use, increased car usage, and less green space [16]. In addition to eliminating the need for lengthy commutes and protecting natural spaces that serve as carbon sinks, effective land use planning may encourage compact and efficient urban growth. Planning for land use may have an impact on travel patterns. The use of public transportation, walking, and cycling may be promoted through well-planned urban layouts, minimizing the need for fossil fuel-powered automobiles and lowering emissions [18,22]. Land use planning may help to mitigate climate change, but it is important to keep in mind that this is a complicated phenomenon that is impacted by many different things, such as energy generation, industrial operations, and agricultural methods. Land use planning may be helpful, but it is just one element of the whole picture [9,12,74]. Local and regional governments may make their areas more resilient to significant climate change via land use planning and ensuring that they have the systems in place to deal with and mitigate such changes [14,16].

In order to recognize and successfully manage the consequences of climate change, integrated land use planning requires a more strategic and long-term strategy than conventional spatial planning does [1,58,79]. The interaction between the impacts of land use and the climate on water is a topic with numerous unexplored study horizons [10]. According to Hyandye et al. [1], Metternich [7], and UNFCCC [22], there are four crucial areas of their significance: integrating hydrogeology and land use, geographic information systems and hydrology, ecology and engineering, and linking ecology and watershed research into management. The basic impact of the geologic context on water flow, infiltration, erosion rates, and chemistry makes it crucial for both the amount and quality of water. The chemistry of the water is substantially impacted by these drainage systems and geologic components. Changes in land use may affect geological processes, like impervious surface weathering, which can result in an increase in several main ions in streams and rivers [60,80]. The vulnerability mapping of present and future environmental variables should be incorporated in the knowledge base of the planning process in order to adequately account for climate change in the planning of land use [81]. Planning tools can be used in a variety of ways to reduce climate risks, such as restricting growth in hazard-prone areas, making sure the built environment can withstand a range of natural emergencies, preserving ecological systems that protect communities about hazards, supporting nature-based methods for adaptation, and educating individuals and organizations about their risks and options [6,18]. Zoning, building regulations, and land use permits are often employed as safeguards to avoid exposing crucial components to climatic risks. Numerous co-benefits associated with climate change management may be derived from this condition across the globe [11].

6. Conclusions

This study assessed the connection between land use planning, water resources, and global climate change. This study shows that land use planning and water resources have an influence on climate change. Making sustainable land use choices may help communities become more livable and resilient, reduce climate change, and improve ecosystem resilience. In order to solve the problems brought on by a changing climate, climate concerns must be included into land use planning. Planning for land use may have an impact on water resources, which therefore have an impact on the climate. Effective water management techniques may reduce the effects of severe weather events and floods, enhancing climate resilience. Examples include protecting watersheds and putting in place green infrastructure. Without taking into account the growing interactions between land use and climate change at various phases, as well as the rising human influence on the water cycle from degrading to restoring ecosystems, global water security cannot be fully restored. The connection between land use planning, water resources, and climate change emphasizes the pressing need for integrated measures that strike a balance between environmental, social, and economic concerns. Understanding and tackling these new patterns is essential for ensuring a sustainable future as global climate change continues to alter our planet. We may strive towards mitigation and adaptation measures that lower the effects of climate change while promoting a more resilient and equitable society by appreciating the interconnectedness between environmental, social, and economic systems. At the local, national, and international levels, collaboration is necessary since it is a common obligation. Future generations will be impacted by the choices we make now about how we utilize land, manage water, and address climate change. We may strive towards a more sustainable and resilient future by realizing how these elements are interrelated. In essence, research on assessing the connection between land use planning, water resources, and global climate change is essential for fostering sustainable development, enhancing resilience, and mitigating the adverse impacts of climate change on both natural systems and human societies. This study’s findings will also provide knowledge on how land use planning can impact ecosystems, biodiversity, and the global climate as a whole. Researching these connections helps in designing land use plans that balance development with conservation efforts.

This study recommends that land use planning should anticipate the impacts of climate change on water resources. There is also the need for smart growth to lessen the negative effects of climate change. Policy integration is very essential to enhancing land use planning and water resource management. Therefore, governments and policymakers should integrate climate change, land use, and water management policies to ensure a coherent and effective approach to sustainable development.

A limitation of thus study is the determination of the research population, which is only addressed to one European country, Greece. However, it also serves as a target for future research, where it could be carried out in other European countries as well as in the whole world, in order to draw comparative conclusions.

Furthermore, future research can focus on investigating how urban development and increased impervious surfaces impact water availability, quality, and runoff patterns. More research is also needed to explore the effectiveness of green infrastructure solutions, such as urban parks, green roofs, and permeable pavements, in mitigating the impacts of land use changes on water resources.