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Article

A Regional Paleoclimate Record of the Tropical Aeolian Sands during the Last Deglaciation in Hainan, China

by
Fengnian Wang
1,
Baosheng Li
2,*,
Dongfeng Niu
3,
Xiaoze Li
4,
Yuejun Si
3,
Peixian Shu
5,
Zhiwen Li
6,
Shuhuan Du
7,
Qiwen Chen
5 and
Min Chen
2
1
School of Geography and Tourism, Huizhou University, Huizhou 516007, China
2
School of Geography, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
3
School of Geography, Lingnan Normal University, Zhanjiang 524048, China
4
Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
5
State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi’an 710061, China
6
School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, China
7
Key Laboratory of Marginal Sea Geology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2024, 16(20), 2901; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202901
Submission received: 25 June 2024 / Revised: 19 September 2024 / Accepted: 30 September 2024 / Published: 12 October 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Water and Climate Change)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The KLD segment of the Kenweiyuan section in Wenchang, Hainan, China is a set of aeolian sand deposits of the Last Deglaciation. The chemical element and heavy mineral analysis performed in this study reveals the chemical index of alteration (CIA) in the segment to be as high as 93–95, with all the heavy minerals identified as stable and extremely stable making up 38–45% of the total. Furthermore, the zircon, tourmaline, and rutile content (ZTR index) of the segment is determined to range between 48–71. The (Al2O3 + TOFE)/SiO2 ratios display obvious fluctuations from old to new strata in the segment, with the low values corresponding to Heinrich event (H1), Dansgaard-Oeschager (D-O), and Younger Dryas (YD) and the high values corresponding to Bølling and Allerød. Our study suggests that these fluctuations are attributed to the alternation of the East Asian winter and summer monsoons. Hainan Island is also impacted by the surface ocean climate of the South China Sea, and characteristics of the KLD segment may be connected to the climate changes in the North Atlantic related to the winter monsoon season or westerlies. Furthermore, the segment presents a clear response to millennium-scale climate changes during the Last Deglaciation on Hainan Island. Based on the high CIA values in the KLD segment, and particularly due to the observed stable detrital minerals, the ratios can be linked to the overall tropical climate, indicating a relatively warm tropical climate environment in the Last Deglaciation in Hainan. The high CIA values also reveal the cause of aeolian sand formation under the tropical environmental conditions in the low latitude region of China in the Late Quaternary.

1. Introduction

The Greenland Ice Sheet Project Two (GISP2) ice core recorded a series of rapid climate oscillation changes on millennial and centennial scales during the Last Deglaciation at high latitudes in the North Atlantic [1]. This has been demonstrated to be a global climate fluctuation event in the transition from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Holocene in the deep sea [2], lakes [3], and the Antarctic [4]. Additional relevant studies focused on the different climate zones in the eastern monsoon regions of China—the warm temperate zone [5,6], northern subtropical zone [7], marginal tropics [8,9], and the South China Sea shelf [10,11,12]—linking the East Asian monsoon with the cooling and heating oscillations in the Last Deglaciation. Hainan Island is located in the eastern monsoon region and belongs to the marginal tropical to mid-tropical region [13]. Numerous scholars have focused on how its environment has changed over time since the Late Quaternary [14,15,16,17]. However, research on the Last Deglaciation concerning Hainan Island is limited, despite studies from the adjacent regions raising questions related to this topic. For example, based on cores from Lake Maar in marginal tropical Huguangyan [13] (Figure 1a①), organic geochemical indicators [8] and pollen proxy [9] reveal that the summer monsoon began to strengthen around 15,400 a BP, and tropical pollen content dramatically increased from 14,000–5000 a BP. This indicates the presence of a tropical monsoon rainforest at that time. Planktonic foraminifera and stable isotope analysis from one of the cores in the South China Sea (Core V36-06-3, 19°00.5′ N, 116°05.6′ E) (Figure 1a②) revealed that δ18O decreased by 1.23‰ during the Last Deglaciation in the northern South China Sea, while the paleotemperature in winter and summer increased by 5.7 °C and 2.1 °C, respectively [10]. The sporopollen from the second core in the South China Sea (from Station ODP1144, 20°3.18′ N, 117°25.14′ E) (Figure 1a③) demonstrated that more tropical and subtropical vegetation, as well as temperate vegetation, started to grow on the northern continental shelf of the South China Sea at around 18 Ka BP [11]. Moreover, the pollen from the third core in the South China Sea (Core 17964, 6°9.5′ N, 112°12.8′ E) (Figure 1a④) indicated that the lower latitude areas in the south of Hainan Island were always covered by lowland rainforests and mangroves, even to the southern continental shelf of the South China Sea, from the Last Glacial period to the Last Deglaciation [12]. In the east (Mudui section, Figure 1b①) and the west (Qiziwan section, Figure 1b②) of the island, weak sandy paleosols developed along the sandy coasts during the Last Deglaciation, with ages ranging from 17,800 ± 4000 to 9500 ± 2000 a OSL BP [15] and 15,000 ± 1600 a TL BP [16], respectively. These studies indicate that this area and the south of Hainan Island were warm during the Last Deglaciation.
Few studies have investigated the stratigraphy, age, and climate indicators for this period on Hainan Island. In this study, we investigate the Kengweiyuan section in Wenchang on Hainan Island (Figure 1b), a set of aeolian sandy sediments of the Last Deglaciation. Based on the grain size, chemical elements, and mineral analyses, we want to find the regional environmental response in Hainan Island and the northern shelf of the South China Sea to global climate change during the Last Deglaciation.

2. Study Area and Methods

2.1. Overview of the Natural Environment of Hainan Island

Hainan Island is the second-largest island in China, with an area of more than 30,000 km2. The island belongs to the eastern monsoon region in the physical division of China. It is located between the marginal tropical and mid-tropical region [13]. As the only tropical semi-arid climate zone in China, the average annual temperature of the island is generally between 22.5 °C and 25.6 °C. The average annual rainfall is approximately 1640 mm, with about 2000–2400 mm of precipitation in the eastern rainy area and only about 1000 mm in the western zone. Topographically, the island has a domed form, with an average elevation of 120 m. Mountains with an elevation of 500 m or more account for 25.4% of the total area, while tablelands (32.6%), terraces (16.9%), hills (13.3%), and plains (11.2%) account for two-thirds. Common rocks in Hainan include magmatic rocks (granite dominates, followed by diabase and gabbro, basalt, etc.), metamorphic rocks, sedimentary clastic rocks, and sedimentary carbonates. The soil is classified into 15 soil types, more than half of which belong to latosol (53.42%), followed by red loam (10.01%) and yellowish loam (3.56%), with minor components of the remaining types. The coastline of Hainan is 1500 km long, of which 982 km consist of sandy coasts and coastal sandy areas distributed in bands on a coastal plain approximately 3–5 km wide. Among them, the coastal sandy area from Mulantou to Tongguling on the eastern coast of the island covers an area of more than 400 km2, with numerous types of wind-drifting sand landforms, such as crescent-shaped dunes, longitudinal and transverse sand ridges, and parabolic sand dunes [18].

2.2. Study Area and the KLD Segment

The Kengweiyuan section (110°46′05″ E, 19°35′01″ N) is located at the junction of Kengweiyuan Village and Houwan Village, Binwan Road, Wenchang City, Hainan (Figure 1b and Figure 2a) at an elevation of 8.6–15.6 m. This section is located on a fixed sandy area within the range of the two villages between the west of Qinglan Bay and the Qichahe River and the east of Binwan Road. It forms part of the southwestern extension zone of the sandy land from Mulantou to Tongguling (including the aforementioned Mudui section) along the coast. There are few signs of wind-drift sand geomorphology present in this section. As shown in Figure 2a, the 5 km2 area of the Houwan and Kengweiyuan villages is covered with lush vegetation, with only a few spots showing bare sandy land surfaces. The section is hand-excavated to a depth of 750 cm. Dating has determined this section to predominantly be of the Upper Pleistocene–Holocene Series. The Last Deglaciation segment “KLD” investigated in this paper is located at the top of the Upper Pleistocene, at depths of 76–107 cm in the section. It consists of aeolian sand, which is a mainly brownish-yellow, slightly reddish, silty fine sand containing clay without stratification that is soft, singular, and uniform in lithology, with well-developed vertical joints (Figure 2b).
Images of KLD segment detrital minerals show that they are highly rounded, and both quartz and feldspar are partially iron-stained. Taking Sample W03-08 as an example (Figure 3), in addition to the iron-staining phenomenon of the minerals, the degree of rounding of both the light mineral (Figure 3a) and the heavy mineral (Figure 3b) components is almost entirely subrounded, with some individual particles almost fully round.
Some particles, particularly the surfaces of the dark minerals, bear distinctive wind-eroded pockmarks. According to the wind-drifting sand movement features, the source of wind-formed sand is almost always related to the sandy sediments found in its location. As seen in the Kengweiyuan section, sandy deposits—immature sandy paleosols and aeolian sands—are widely present in the underlying Upper Pleistocene strata. In addition, the underlying sediments (38,700–17,600 a BP) of the Last Deglaciation strata in the aforementioned Mudui section contain up to 82–100% sand [15]. This implies that large quantities of sand material existed prior to the KLD, at least along the Mudui–Wenchang coast. It is assumed that the KLD was the result of “ancient sand rejuvenation.”

2.3. Analytical Methods

A total of 32 samples were collected from the KLD segment at an interval of 1 cm. All of the samples were subjected to grain size measurement, of which 15 samples at an interval of 2 cm for chemical elements analysis, 3 samples for a detrital minerals experiment, and 3 samples for age determination. Figure 4 depicts the depths of the collected samples.
The ages were determined using the optically stimulated luminescence dating method (OSL) (3 samples) (Figure 4) at the OSL Laboratory of the Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources, China. The experimental method follows that described in Wang et al. (2022) [19].
Grain size measurements were based on the loess grain size [20] using a Mastersizer 2000M analyzer (Malvern Panalytical, Malvern, UK) ranging from 0.02 to 2000 μm. Grain size parameters were calculated based on the method described in Folk et al. (1957) [21].
The chemical elements were measured using a Japanese Rigaku-3070E X-ray spectrometer following the experiment procedures in Wang et al. (2022) [19]. The analysis was performed in the School of Geography, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.
Detrital minerals analysis was carried out in Chengxin Geological Service Co., Langfang, Hebei, China. In particular, samples were separated prior to testing with a #40 sieve. An aluminum circular tray was then used for coarse panning. Following this, the minerals were placed on a glass plate or thick paper to form a thin layer, and a magnet wrapped in thin paper was gently moved on the mineral surface or near the mineral. Once a large number of strong magnetic minerals were attracted to the magnet, they were placed on another white paper. This process was repeated until the strong magnetic minerals in the sample were completely absorbed. A magnet or electromagnetic instrument was used for the separation process and repeated magnetic separation was performed. The sample was subsequently poured into a small tray for elutriation and water was slowly injected into the tray. The tray was then manually tilted and rotated such that the heavy minerals concentrated at the bottom of the tray and the light minerals gradually moved to the lower edge of the tray and were carried out by the water. This process was repeated several times. The separated parts were weighed and packed. After the sand sample was separated, each component of the sand sample was placed under the binocular lens to calculate the percentage content of the mineral by visual estimation. The weight of the minerals was calculated using p = 2nPy%.
  • P: fraction weight of a part of the sample.
  • p: weight of useful minerals.
  • y: volume percentage of useful minerals.
  • n: number of reduction.

3. Results

3.1. Ages of the KLD Segment

Table 1 reports the OSL ages and the parameters associated with the KLD segment. The ages at the top and bottom of the segment are determined as 9400 ± 800 a BP and 16,100 ± 1500 a BP, respectively (Figure 4). According to the positive error of these two ages, the KLD segment distributed at a depth of 76–107 cm in the section was formed during the Last Glaciation (18,000–11,600 a BP). Moreover, the age in the center of the segment falls within the period 13,700 ± 1000 a BP.

3.2. Grain Size

Figure 5 presents the percentage content of each grain-size component in the samples of the segment based on the results of the grain-size analysis. Table 2 reports the distribution ranges of the grain-size components (%), Mz (ϕ) (average grain size), σ (standard deviation), and average values for the entire KLD segment.
The KLD segment mainly consists of fine and medium sand, with a smaller proportion of silt and clay, accounting for more than 20% of the total (Table 2). Mz (ϕ) is observed to vary between fine sand and coarse silt, while σ indicates poor sorting. The grain size probability curves reveal all the segment samples to be characterized by saltation load. Taking the W03-03 sample randomly as an example (Figure 6), its saltation load presents two segment types. The slope of the main segment reaches 60°. The suspended mass also exhibits two segment types, yet the slope of the main segment is lower. The poor sorting of the aeolian sand is also evident from the chart.

3.3. Major Chemical Elements

Table 3 reports the distribution and average values of major elements for 15 samples in the KLD segment. SiO2 is the dominant compound in the KLD segment. Although Al2O3 is significantly reduced, it is able to reach more than 10% of the segment. The content of TOFE (Fe2O3 + FeO) is low, and the contents of K2O, Na2O, MgO, and CaO are not stable. The coefficient of Si/Al is high, while the CIA for all samples exceeds 93.

3.4. Detrital Heavy Minerals

The results of the detrital mineral analysis of three samples with grain size greater than 0.05 mm from the KLD segment reveal that light components account for approximately 99%, mainly including quartz (56–65%), followed by feldspar (32–38%) (Figure 1a). The remaining 7% comprises debris. Although the content of heavy minerals is extremely low (approximately 1%), numerous types are present (Table 4), all of which are highly resistant to weathering. Figure 7 reveals that all the mineral species are stable, with the content of extremely stable minerals reaching 39–44%. The ZTR (zircon, tourmaline, and rutile) content is observed to reach 31.05%, while the ZTR index values of the three samples are as high as 48–71.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

We compared the grain size distribution in the segment with that of dune sands of the Late Quaternary in the Mu Us Desert [22] (referred to as “MDG”) in China’s temperate zone. Figure 8 reveals that more than half of the scattered points of Mz (ϕ) of the segment are in the range of MDG, but with finer particles. The Mz (ϕ) of some individual samples indicates coarse silt, while almost all the points of σ are beyond this range, indicating poor sorting. Such sorting of the segment is obviously related to the higher content of fine particles, especially clay particles. Thus, we infer that the KLD segment also experienced multiple immature soil formation processes of very short duration, during which the wind speed decreased greatly, thereby favoring the accumulation of silt, particularly, the growth of clay particles caused by soilization resulting from the hot and humid climate. Therefore, the particle size characteristics of the W03-03 sample (Figure 7) show that a certain amount of low-slope suspended matter probably explains this phenomenon.
High SiO2 content, relatively moderate Al2O3 and TOFE contents, and limited K2O, Na2O, MgO, and CaO contents in the KLD segment show that three stable chemical elements aggregated and four active chemical elements leached away. Based on the chemical weathering feature, this probably implies a warm and humid sedimentary environment. Comparing SiO2 and Al2O3 in the KLD segment with those in the paleo-dune sands of the Mu Us Desert [22] (Figure 9), there is no significant difference in the SiO2 content between the two, while the former exhibits significantly higher Al2O3 content than the latter.
In addition, although the Si/Al coefficient in the KLD segment is high, its high CIA value (greater than 93) implies a warm and humid climate background. Such a CIA value is typically found in highly weathered reticulated laterite in China, which is considered to indicate a tropical climate [23].
The types and contents of detrital heavy minerals in the KLD segment indicate the presence of a warm and humid climate. This is true not only for the absolute content of stable minerals, but also for the high content of extremely stable minerals. In particular, the average value (34.62) of the ZTR indexes is 6.5 times higher than that of the paleo-mobile dune sands of the Mu Us Desert [22]. Additionally, the substantial enrichment of ilmenite (47–51%) in the segment (Figure 7) reveals the probable presence of a tropical climate when it was deposited. Scholars have suggested that in China, the formation environment of ilmenite deposits is mostly related to hot and humid environments with abundant rainfall [24,25].
This is the first time that a tropical climate environment in the Last Deglaciation on Hainan Island has been confirmed using major geochemical elements and minerals in the aeolian sands as evidence. This view, to a certain extent, verifies and supplements the arguments made above regarding the temperature rises and tropical rainforest during the Last Deglacial in the adjacent marginal tropics [8,9] and the northern continental shelf of the South China Sea [10,11,12].
Xu et al. (2013) investigated sporopollen, foraminifera, and long-chain ketenes of core DG9603 from the Okinawa Trough of the East China Sea (28°08.87′ N, 127°16.24′ E) (Figure 1a legend⑤) [26]. The results showed that the seawater temperature in the Okinawa Trough area of the East China Sea increased rapidly as early as about 20,000 to 19,000 years ago, until the Holocene warm period, during which there was a northern subtropical forest climate from 15 ka BP to the early Holocene. The latitude of the Core DG9603 is almost the same as the southern boundary of the northern subtropical zone (28°–33°) of the present Chinese mainland. This implies that during 15–11.6 Ka BP of the Last Deglaciation, the climate zone distribution pattern of the north, middle, and south subtropics–marginal tropics–middle tropics–equatorial tropics, as today [13], has transformed from the eastern part of the southern continent of China to Hainan Island and even to lower latitude areas.
Given these findings, it is not difficult to understand why: (1) the sporopollen in the marginal tropics (Huguangyan Maar Lake) indicated a “tropical monsoon rainforest” in 14,000–116,000 a BP [9]; (2) more tropical and subtropical vegetation and temperate vegetation began to grow in 18 Ka BP on the northern continental shelf of the South China Sea [11]; and (3) from the Last Glacial period to the Last Deglaciation, the southern continental shelf of the South China Sea was always covered by lowland rainforests and mangroves [12]. If these views are correct, then a tropical climate similar to today also existed on Hainan Island during the Last Deglaciation. In particular, the tropical monsoon forests in the marginal tropics [9] during 14,000–116,000 a BP strongly explain why Hainan Island had this similar environment. More specifically, Wenchang, where the Kangweiyuan section is located, is at a more southerly latitude and possesses better hydrothermal conditions [27] than the marginal tropical Zhanjiang (Huguangyan Maar Lake). Modern meteorological data show that the former has an annual average temperature and precipitation of 24.4 °C and 1975 mm [28], respectively, with corresponding values of 23.8 °C and 1565 mm, respectively, for the latter [29].
However, the above views do not clarify how Hainan Island responded to the millennium-scale climate fluctuations during the Last Deglaciation. Thus, we used the ratio of (Al2O3 + TOFE)/SiO2 [23] (Figure 8) to indicate the weathering index of desiliconization and aluminum–iron gathering in an attempt to explain this response. TOFE is the sum of FeO + Fe2O3. The weathering index (Al2O3 + TOFE)/SiO2 shows obvious fluctuations in the KLD segment in the time sequences (Figure 10), of which the low values correspond to H1, OD, and YD, while the high peaks correspond to the Bølling and Allerød periods. This indicates a clear response to the millennium-scale climate changes during the Last Deglaciation on Hainan Island. The ratio fluctuations are very similar to those of Huguangyan Maar Lake [8] in the same climate zone, and can also be considered a result of the alternations of the East Asian summer and winter monsoons characterized by mutual growth and decline. Such climate fluctuations also show coordinated changes consistent with the surface sea temperature (SST) of the South China Sea. The latter exhibits apparent rapid climate changes similar to the oxygen isotope temperature of the Greenland ice cores [30,31]. This suggests that Hainan Island, like the surface ocean climate of the South China Sea, can be connected to the climate of the North Atlantic region through the winter monsoon or westerly belt [32]. Nevertheless, based on the high CIA value in the KLD segment, particularly the stable and extremely clastic minerals with absolute predominance, the peak-valley fluctuations of the (Al2O3 + TOFE)/SiO2 ratios were formed within the context of an overall tropical climate. During the winter monsoon prevailing period, the island was warm and dry, and the effects of desiliconization and aluminum–iron enrichment were weak, corresponding to the main accumulation period for aeolian sands. In contrast, when the summer monsoon prevailed, it was warm and humid, and the effects were strong, primarily during the weathering period of aeolian sands. Therefore, it is easy to understand why the grain size of aeolian sands is fine and poorly sorted in the KLD segment.
Hainan Island is the largest land area on the marginal tropical to the mid-tropical ocean in China. Due to its low latitude, being surrounded by the South China Sea, it exhibits a unique land and sea distribution and tropical radiation amount, the latter of which explains its tropical climate during the Last Deglaciation. Also very important is the existence of the Western Pacific Warm Pool to the south and southeast of Hainan Island, considered as the island’s main source of global heat and water vapor. Affected by precession, the Last Deglaciation occurred exactly when the amount of solar radiation continued to increase (e.g., NHSI) [33], and the overall temperature of the Western Pacific Warm Pool continued to increase after entering the Last Deglaciation [34,35]. The Western Pacific Warm Pool Core MD972142 (12°41.133′ N, 119°27.90′ E) in the southeast of Hainan Island (Figure 1a⑥) showed that the δ18O (‰) value of planktonic foraminifera continued to decrease, while the SST (°C) almost always followed a heating trend throughout the last glacial ablation period [35]. This indicates that at that time, the warm pool area was enlarged and the subtropical high pressure was intensified. As a result, the East Asian summer monsoon was subsequently strengthened, thereby bringing more precipitation to Hainan Island, which led to the geochemical and mineral distribution [36] in the KLD segment described in this paper.
The climate indicators in this paper suggest fairly warm temperatures in the study area during the Last Deglaciation [37], with a tropical climate. This study proposes the origin of the tropical climate at this low-latitude sandy land location for the first time in China in the Late Quaternary.

Author Contributions

F.W.: Conceptualization, investigation, formal analysis, methodology, writing—original draft. B.L.: Conceptualization, project administration, resources, funding acquisition, writing—review and editing. D.N.: Investigation, methodology, formal analysis, software. X.L.: Supervision, methodology. Y.S.: Investigation, data curation, formal analysis, methodology, writing—review and editing. P.S.: Formal analysis, methodology, software. Z.L.: Investigation, methodology, formal analysis. S.D.: Investigation, methodology. Q.C.: Software, data analysis, graph drawing. M.C.: Methodology, data analysis. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This paper was funded by the Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation, Grant Number: 2020A1515011071; Guangdong Innovation Project, Grant Number: 2018KTSCX213. Teaching Innovation Project of Huizhou University. Project of the Center for Integrated Management and Development of the Wuding River Basin: Continental Desert Evolution since 150 ka BP--East Asian Monsoonal Environment Changes from Typical Section and Chronological Ages.

Data Availability Statement

The primitive data are available if requested.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Water 16 02901 g001
Figure 1. Division of the southern climate zone in eastern China [13] (a) and the distribution of boreholes and sections related to this study (b).
Figure 1. Division of the southern climate zone in eastern China [13] (a) and the distribution of boreholes and sections related to this study (b).
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Figure 2. The location of the Kengweiyuan section (a) and profiles of the KLD segment (b) in Wenchang, Hainan (Water 16 02901 i001 indicating the location of the Kengweiyuan section).
Figure 2. The location of the Kengweiyuan section (a) and profiles of the KLD segment (b) in Wenchang, Hainan (Water 16 02901 i001 indicating the location of the Kengweiyuan section).
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Figure 3. Roundness of debris mineral sample W03-08: (a) light minerals; (b) heavy minerals.
Figure 3. Roundness of debris mineral sample W03-08: (a) light minerals; (b) heavy minerals.
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Figure 4. The Kengweiyuan section (a), depth of the KLD segment, and sample distribution (b). Legend: 1. aeolian sand; 2. sandy paleosol; 3. slightly reticulated sandy paleosol; 4. loess; 5. moderately weathered reticulated laterite; 6. strongly weathered reticulated laterite; 7. ferromanganese nodules; 8. coarse sand in the fluvial facies; 9. strongly weathered gravel layer; 10. AMS-14C age; 11. OSL age; 12. grain size sample; 13. chemical element sample; 14. mineral sample.
Figure 4. The Kengweiyuan section (a), depth of the KLD segment, and sample distribution (b). Legend: 1. aeolian sand; 2. sandy paleosol; 3. slightly reticulated sandy paleosol; 4. loess; 5. moderately weathered reticulated laterite; 6. strongly weathered reticulated laterite; 7. ferromanganese nodules; 8. coarse sand in the fluvial facies; 9. strongly weathered gravel layer; 10. AMS-14C age; 11. OSL age; 12. grain size sample; 13. chemical element sample; 14. mineral sample.
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Figure 5. Distribution of grain-size component content (%) in the KLD segment.
Figure 5. Distribution of grain-size component content (%) in the KLD segment.
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Figure 6. Grain size characteristics on the probability curve of Sample W03-03.
Figure 6. Grain size characteristics on the probability curve of Sample W03-03.
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Figure 7. Distribution of detrital heavy minerals of three samples in the KLD segment.
Figure 7. Distribution of detrital heavy minerals of three samples in the KLD segment.
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Figure 8. Comparison of scatter distribution of grain size Mz (ϕ)–σ between dune sands in the KLD segment and the Mu Us Desert in the Late Quaternary.
Figure 8. Comparison of scatter distribution of grain size Mz (ϕ)–σ between dune sands in the KLD segment and the Mu Us Desert in the Late Quaternary.
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Figure 9. Comparison of the scatter distribution of SiO2–Al2O3 between dune sands in the KLD segment and the Mu Us Desert.
Figure 9. Comparison of the scatter distribution of SiO2–Al2O3 between dune sands in the KLD segment and the Mu Us Desert.
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Figure 10. Fluctuations of the weathering indicator (Al2O3 + TOFE)/SiO2 ratio and comparison with high-latitude millennial-scale events.
Figure 10. Fluctuations of the weathering indicator (Al2O3 + TOFE)/SiO2 ratio and comparison with high-latitude millennial-scale events.
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Table 1. OSL dating results and their parameters in the KLD segment.
Table 1. OSL dating results and their parameters in the KLD segment.
NumberLocationDepth (m)U (×10−6)Th (×10−6)K%E.D (Gy)Annual Dose (mGy)OSL Age (ka)
20G-74top 0.751.93 ± 0.0916.69 ± 0.900.22 ± 0.0025.74 ± 1.792.74 ± 0.119.4 ± 0.8
20G-76middle 0.922.10 ± 0.1216.69 ± 0.440.27 ± 0.0037.86 ± 1.882.77 ± 0.1113.7 ± 1.0
19G-150bottom 1.071.4611.860.2533.41 ± 2.862.08 ± 0.0816.1 ± 1.5
Table 2. The component (%) and parameters of grain size in the KLD segment.
Table 2. The component (%) and parameters of grain size in the KLD segment.
GradeVery Coarse Grain + Coarse GrainMedium SandFine SandVery Fine SandCoarse SiltFine SiltClay Mz (ϕ)σ
Range0.02–96.683.32–29.360–43.580–14.820–20.910–6.620–21.962.75–4.821.70–3.10
Average 4.7620.5637.7311.4813.833.568.113.452.07
Table 3. Major elements’ contents (%) distribution in the KLD segment.
Table 3. Major elements’ contents (%) distribution in the KLD segment.
ElementMinMaxAverageElementMinMaxAverage
SiO268.7481.6673.40Na2O0.080.150.12
Al2O310.0414.2512.63K2O0.390.470.44
Fe2O33.43.93.62MgO0.010.140.09
CaO0.060.070.06SiO2/Al2O36.855.735.81
CIA93.1094.9294.13
Table 4. Mineral contents in the total of detrital heavy minerals of three samples in the KLD segment.
Table 4. Mineral contents in the total of detrital heavy minerals of three samples in the KLD segment.
MineralWC02-37WC02-46WC03-08
Particle NumberMineral Weight (mg) PercentageParticle NumberMineral Weight (mg)PercentageParticle NumberMineral Weight (mg)Percentage
anatase1410.703.171810.282.811410.523.08
topaz30 10.570.168
staurolite21.530.4521.140.3121.500.44
ilmenite220168.1249.89302172.4447.11233175.0151.32
magnetite10.760.2310.570.1610.750.22
hematite limonite32.290.6842.280.6232.250.66
leucoxene3123.697.035933.699.203526.297.71
monazite10.760.2310.570.1630
zircon10882.5324.4914281.0822.158866.1019.38
rutile1511.463.401910.852.961410.523.08
tourmaline2317.585.225833.129.053929.298.59
others2317.585.223419.415.302518.785.51
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Wang, F.; Li, B.; Niu, D.; Li, X.; Si, Y.; Shu, P.; Li, Z.; Du, S.; Chen, Q.; Chen, M. A Regional Paleoclimate Record of the Tropical Aeolian Sands during the Last Deglaciation in Hainan, China. Water 2024, 16, 2901. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202901

AMA Style

Wang F, Li B, Niu D, Li X, Si Y, Shu P, Li Z, Du S, Chen Q, Chen M. A Regional Paleoclimate Record of the Tropical Aeolian Sands during the Last Deglaciation in Hainan, China. Water. 2024; 16(20):2901. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202901

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Fengnian, Baosheng Li, Dongfeng Niu, Xiaoze Li, Yuejun Si, Peixian Shu, Zhiwen Li, Shuhuan Du, Qiwen Chen, and Min Chen. 2024. "A Regional Paleoclimate Record of the Tropical Aeolian Sands during the Last Deglaciation in Hainan, China" Water 16, no. 20: 2901. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202901

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