Irrigation Water in Northwest Syria: Impact of the Recent Crisis and Drought

Abstract

This study examines how Northwest Syria’s arable and irrigated areas are changing, with a particular emphasis on processes that have affected cultivation and water availability since 2011. A substantial decline in cultivated areas is revealed by the analysis of 502 samples from various stakeholders, including farmers, well owners, well-digging companies, agricultural pharmacies, and service offices. District-specific variations show a decrease of 15.3% and 8.5% in total cultivated land and irrigated areas, respectively. Particularly in areas known for their summer vegetables and winter crops, such Al-Bab and Jebel Saman, agricultural productivity has drastically decreased since 2011. Today, 67% of irrigation comes from groundwater wells, especially in Jabal Saman and Idleb, whereas Jisr-Ash-Shugur depends on the Orontes River. Due to drought and a lack of regulatory oversight, the number of irrigation wells has risen since 2011, severely reducing water supplies and driving up irrigation prices. High fuel and electricity costs, uncontrolled well drilling, broken machinery, and insufficient irrigation systems are some of the main obstacles. A lot of well owners would rather sell drinking water, which would cut down on irrigated land and crop cultivation. The needs of the stakeholders include subsidies for fuel and electricity, the development of alternative energy, well repairs, improvements to irrigation systems, the provision of agricultural inputs, and better local water management. This study emphasizes the critical need for focused interventions to support agriculture and livelihoods in Northwest Syria and offers significant insights for sustainable water management solutions.

1. Introduction

The agriculture and agri-food sectors in Syria are facing challenges stemming from a series of crises, necessitating urgent measures to enhance their resilience as a national priority [1]. The cost of production has increased also due to concurrent sharp rises in input prices, including labour, machinery, seeds, and input shortages (particularly seeds, agrochemicals, tools, and fuel) [2,3,4]. The period 2021–2022 showed a notable decline in crop yields and persistent food insecurity due to irregular weather patterns, exacerbated by factors such as damaged infrastructure, disrupted services, and a shortage of energy resources, particularly diesel and electricity. This decline in agricultural production extends beyond rainfed crop systems to include irrigated crops like cereals, legumes, barley, and vegetables [5]. According to [2], 70 percent of cropland in the Northwest has faced substantial agricultural stress in 2022, which adds strain to an already delicate food system. While agriculture continues to provide millions of people around the nation with their main source of income, food security, and social stability [4], insufficient agricultural productivity is a key factor contributing to food insecurity, particularly in the Northwest. In addition to challenges in accessing irrigation water, farmers in this region also face disruptions to agricultural activities, and heightened production costs due to escalating fuel prices [6]. Farmers facing difficulties accessing groundwater for irrigation increasingly depend on purchasing water in tankers, a challenging and expensive endeavor. The lack of water resources and the overall rise in production costs have forced some farmers to cease their activities and seek alternative livelihoods [2]. Despite these challenges, there have been modest improvements in recent years and, following the restoration of irrigation infrastructure [1], the irrigable land area has risen from 1.42 million hectares in 2019/20 to 1.44 million hectares in 2020/21.

Since the onset of the Syrian conflict in 2011, the Northwest Syria (NWS) region has persistently served as a focal point of intense conflict since this area fell under the governance of Syrian opposition groups in 2012 [7]. The war and its aftermath led to the destruction of irrigation structures and pumping stations, coupled with recurrent erratic electricity outages and rising fuel prices, resulting in a substantial reduction in irrigated areas [1]. The destruction of numerous irrigation canals has forced farmers to over-exploit groundwater and construct new, unregistered wells. The increased use of groundwater wells, in addition to lowering the water table, has heightened water salinity in general, adversely impacting yields and resulting in additional operational [8].

Ref. [9] highlights the interplay of power, conflict, and cooperation in transboundary water management, emphasizing how political tensions exacerbate water scarcity, particularly in conflict zones like Syria. This perspective is essential for understanding the broader geopolitical factors influencing water governance at both local and national levels. Similarly, ref. [10] in their chapter “The Politics of Water in the Case of Syria” explore the institutional and political frameworks that have historically shaped water policies, including how the centralization of power and weak governance structures has led to inefficient water management practices. These works provide a comprehensive view of the socio-political and institutional barriers to sustainable water management in Syria, reinforcing the argument that addressing these challenges requires both technical and governance-focused solutions.

The water sector is one of the top sectors that were focused on due to the needs for irrigation water in the region, so this study aims to assess the impact of the Syrian crisis and recent drought on the irrigation sector in Northwest Syria and to conduct a comparative analysis of irrigation water availability and quality before and after the crisis. The research also seeks to identify challenges and weaknesses in the irrigation water systems, exploring how the local population has adapted to these issues. By understanding coping strategies, this study aims to inform interventions to mitigate the risks of irrigation water system deterioration. Ultimately, the goal is to provide donors, NGOs, and decision-makers with strategies for addressing current challenges and promoting sustainable irrigation water resource management in northwest Syria.

2. Materials and Methods

The region known as Northwest Syria is quite large and includes most of the Idlib governorate, lesser parts of the governorates of Hama and Latakia, and a large chunk of the northern Aleppo governorate. There are 4.55 million people residing in Northwest Syria, of which 2.87 million are believed to be internally displaced people (IDPs). Of these, about 2 million live in 1527 camps or other informal sites, with 80% of them being women and children [11]. Depletion of wells, which leaves saline and sulfurous water unfit for human consumption, is a major problem in Northwest Syria [12].

We utilized a methodology for this research project that was based on gathering participant data through structured questionnaires. A wide range of important informants who were knowledgeable with the dynamics of irrigation water in Northwest Syria were among our target groups. Among these key informants were farmers with irrigated property, owners of water wells, companies that drill wells, suppliers of water trucks, and service offices in local governments. We dispersed our survey at random to guarantee a representative sample, and we covered all districts in Northwest Syria: Ariha, Harim, Idleb, and Jisr-Ash-Shugur in Idleb and Afrin, Al Bab, A’zaz, Jarablus, and Jebel Saman districts in Aleppo (Figure 1).

The final sample size was 502 for the study (

Table 1. The number of surveys conducted in Northwest Syria with the different stakeholders.

Governorate	District	Local Councils	Irrigated-Land Farmers	Water-Well Owners	Well-Digging Companies	Water-Trucking Suppliers	Agricultural Pharmacies	Total
Aleppo	Afrin	7	37	32	0	14	2	92
Aleppo	Al Bab	3	11	31	1	4	0	50
Aleppo	A’zaz	4	0	23	0	8	0	35
Aleppo	Jarablus	2	12	53	0	18	2	87
Aleppo	Jebel Saman	2	10	10	2	4	2	30
Idleb	Ariha	3	6	4	5	10	2	30
Idleb	Harim	6	22	24	2	8	14	76
Idleb	Idleb	3	15	19	3	14	2	56
Idleb	Jisr-Ash-Shugur	4	9	10	1	22	0	46
Total	9	34	122	206	14	102	24	502

), with a 5% margin of error and a 95% confidence level. This computation considered the owners of water wells, irrigated property, well-digging businesses, agricultural pharmacies, and service offices within local governments. In total, 32,654 people were counted as the total population of these stakeholders in Northwest Syria. Samples were chosen according to predetermined standards, with a focus on well owners that operate businesses using their wells, such as selling water and engaging in agriculture. Interviews were conducted with key informants from local councils who oversee technical services and have a thorough understanding of the water situation in their districts. The focus also included agricultural pharmacies with at least ten years of experience in the field and well-digging enterprises.

The questionnaire was created with the current study goals in mind. It was divided into two main sections: the first examined the participant’s sociodemographic information, while the second explored the intricate workings of the irrigation system and the difficulties that come with it. We specifically gathered information on water resources, irrigation techniques, modifications to arable land and crops used, the effects of drought on displacement, the condition of irrigation channels, water sources, techniques, groundwater levels, well-drilling practices, water quality, entities in charge of managing water resources, difficulties encountered, and assistance required. For the most part, respondents could answer as many questions as they needed to.

We utilized the KOBO Toolbox tool in order to improve the accuracy and consistency of the data that we had gathered. To strengthen its reliability, these data were put through a rigorous coding process and a number of constraints. It is interesting that in order to accommodate a wider spectrum of responses, the questionnaire was made available in both Arabic and English. A competent field technical team consisting of seven female and twenty-two male data collectors carried out the data collection operation. A well-rounded approach to data collecting was ensured by the diversified team consisting of professionals with varying experience, including economists, mechanical engineers, civil engineers, and agricultural engineers. The University of Bristol’s Faculty of Engineering Research Ethics Committee granted ethics approval (Review reference: 2023-14678-16259).

3. Results

3.1. Availability of Arable and Irrigated Lands in Northwest Syria After 2011

In general, the results showed a decline in the cultivated area (rain-fed and irrigated) after 2011 in most of the studied areas in NW Syria, compared with the area before 2011. The total cultivated area decreased from 655,858 hectares before 2011 to 555,553 hectares after 2011, by 15.3%. For the irrigated area, the results differed according to the district. It decreased in some regions and increased in others. But in general, it decreased by 8.5%, from 128,680 hectares before 2011 to 117,723 hectares after 2011. The highest percentage of increase in irrigated lands was in Idleb (90%) (

Table 2. The percentage of decrease/increase in the cultivated area and irrigated area after 2011 compared with before 2011 in the study districts.

Governorate	District	The Arable Land Area (Irrigated + Rainfed) *		% Decrease	The Irrigated Lands *		% Decrease
		Before 2011	After 2011		Before 2011	After 2011
Aleppo	Afrin	120,300	101,654	15.5%	31,325	21,186	32%
Aleppo	Al Bab	122,000	89,000	27.0%	25,000	10,000	60%
Aleppo	A’zaz	188,232	149,030	1.2%	22,070	30,070	−36%
Aleppo	Jarablus	52,000	50,800	20.8%	9089	8509	6%
Aleppo	Jebel Saman	13,902	13,747	4.0%	3549	4006	−16%
Idleb	Ariha	30,413	30,061	8.6%	4094	4260	−4%
Idleb	Harim	68,306	65,562	2.3%	18,326	17,592	4%
Idleb	Idleb	36,005	32,899	1.1%	9276	17,600	−90%
Idleb	Jisr-Ash-Shugur	24,700	22,800	7.7%	5950	4500	24%
2	9	655,858	555,553		128,680	117,723

Note: * n = 58, respondents were local councils (34) and agricultural pharmacies (24).

).

3.2. Type of Irrigated Crops in NW Syria

The results showed that summer vegetables and winter crops (such as wheat, barley, lentil, and chickpeas) are the most important irrigated cultivation in most targeted areas by 91% and 81%, respectively. Irrigated summer vegetable cultivation (such as tomato, eggplant, paper, zucchini, cucumber, etc.) was concentrated in the Al-Bab, Azaz, Jebel Saman, Ariha, and Harim districts where 100% of the respondents indicated that they are cultivating various land-sizes of the summer vegetables due to the availability of the arable lands and the irrigation water. Also, the percentage of irrigated winter crop cultivation (regardless of the land size) reached 100% in the Jebel Saman, while the percentage of irrigated trees reached 100% in the Ariha and Jisr-Ash-Shugur districts due to the mountainous nature of these two areas. The highest rate of winter vegetable cultivation (such as cabbage, lettuce, spinach, onion, etc.) was 95% in the Idleb region, and this is due to its proximity to the city of Idleb as a local market for distributing these rapidly perishable products. The highest rate of fodder crop cultivation was 79% in the Al-Bab region, and this is due to the availability of livestock in this region. This diversity in crops is related to the availability of different irrigation sources and the nature and geography of each of these areas (

Table 3. The most important irrigated crops in the targeted districts *.

Governorate	District	Winter Crops	Cash Crops	Summer Vegetables	Winter Vegetables	Trees	Forage Crops
Aleppo	Afrin	80%	0%	83%	74%	83%	28%
	Al Bab	93%	7%	100%	93%	93%	79%
	A’zaz	75%	0%	100%	75%	50%	75%
	Jarablus	94%	6%	81%	50%	75%	44%
	Jebel Saman	100%	64%	100%	93%	7%	7%
Idleb	Ariha	73%	0%	100%	9%	100%	73%
	Harim	88%	26%	90%	50%	81%	50%
	Idleb	70%	10%	100%	95%	55%	55%
	Jisr-Ash-Shugur	38%	0%	85%	23%	100%	31%
2	9	81%	13%	91%	64%	75%	44%

Note: * n = 180, respondents were local councils (34), irrigated-land farmers (122), and agricultural pharmacies (24).

).

3.3. Impact of the Recent Drought in NW Syria

Respondents from local councils and agricultural pharmacies indicated that the drought that has been ravaging Northwest Syria (Aleppo and Idleb) for several years has increased the percentage of displacement and migration of the population. In total, 62% of the surveyed population confirmed that drought has affected the migration of people while 32% reported no effects. Moreover, 60% of the respondents confirmed that drought caused a significant increase in the poverty rate among the affected people in NW Syria, while 26% were forced to migrate, and 13% developed various economic methods to adapt to the drought.

3.4. Water Resources for Irrigation in NW Syria

In the survey, 67% of the respondents reported that people in Northwest Syria depend mostly on groundwater wells, while 13% depended on permanent rivers, 7% depended on wastewater, and 5% depended on collecting rainwater as an irrigation resource. Only 4% depend on each of the seasonal rivers and dam water as irrigation resources. The districts that are dependent on underground water as a first source in the irrigation process are Jabal Saman and Idleb districts, at a rate of 94% and 90%, respectively, due to the lack of rivers and other water sources, while the lowest rate was in the Jisr-Ash-Shugur district at 26%. This diversity in reliance on irrigation sources is related to the nature and geography of each region (availability of arable land versus mountains) and the availability of different irrigation sources (permanent or temporary resources) in each of these regions (

Table 4. The sources of irrigation water in the targeted districts *.

Governorate	District	Permanent Rivers	Seasonal Rivers	Lakes and Dams	Groundwater Wells	Rainwater Collection	Wastewater
Aleppo	Afrin	19%	8%	17%	49%	3%	5%
	Al Bab	1%	4%	0%	73%	1%	22%
	A’zaz	4%	6%	0%	76%	5%	9%
	Jarablus	30%	11%	12%	40%	6%	1%
	Jebel Saman	0%	0%	0%	94%	0%	5%
Idleb	Ariha	0%	0%	1%	82%	12%	5%
	Harim	16%	0%	1%	74%	6%	3%
	Idleb	0%	4%	0%	90%	3%	3%
	Jisr-Ash-Shugur	45%	8%	2%	26%	13%	6%
2	9	13%	4%	4%	67%	5%	7%

Note: * n = 352, respondents were irrigated-land farmers (122), water-well owners (206), and agricultural pharmacies (24).

).

In the Jisr-Ash-Shugur region, reliance is primarily on permanent river water for irrigation (45%), due to the availability of water from the Orontes River. In the Jarablus, Afrin, and Harim districts, reliance on permanent rivers comes in second place by 30%, 19%, and 16%, respectively. This is due to the availability of permanent rivers (Euphrates, Afrin, and Orontes rivers) in these areas. The Al-Bab district depends on wastewater as a second resource for irrigation after well water by 22% due to the scarcity of water in this region (Table 4).

The adoption of the technique of collecting rainwater and using it for irrigation by 12% in the Ariha district is due to the mountainous nature of this region, the spread of tree planting, and the possibility of applying this technique easily. The Afrin and Jarablus districts depend on the water of lakes and dams as a source of irrigation because of its availability in these areas, at 17% and 12%, respectively (Table 4).

3.5. Status of Irrigation Water Wells in NW Syria

The results showed an increase in the number of water wells used for irrigation after 2011 in all districts except Jarablus. Overall, the total number of wells increased by 107%, rising from 8173 wells in the study areas before 2011 to 16,932 wells after 2011. The percentage increase in the number of wells varied by region, with the highest percentages recorded at 200%, 149%, and 140% in the Idlib, Harem, and Al-Bab districts, respectively. In contrast, the results indicated a decrease of 37% in the number of wells in Jarablus, where the count fell from 439 wells before 2011 to 276 wells after 2011 (

Table 5. The number of wells used for irrigation in study districts, before and after 2011 *.

Governorate	District	# of Wells Used for Irrigation /District Before 2011	# of Wells Used for Irrigation /District After 2011	% of Increase
Aleppo	Afrin	2407	5437	126%
	Al Bab	503	1208	140%
	A’zaz	1154	1578	37%
	Jarablus	439	276	−37%
	Jebel Saman	263	548	108%
Idleb	Ariha	511	534	5%
	Harim	1954	4864	149%
	Idleb	422	1268	200%
	Jisr-Ash-Shugur	520	1219	134%
2	9	8173	16,932	107%

Note: * n = 278, respondents were local councils (34), water-well owners (206), well-digging companies (14), and agricultural pharmacies (24).

).

Furthermore, 80% of the respondents reported that the increase was due to drought conditions and a decline in groundwater levels, while 71% attributed it to the absence of official government agencies regulating the drilling process. Other contributing factors included the high price of water (70%), severe consumption due to caps on establishment (60%), increased demand for agricultural products (55%), and the rise in farming as a source of livelihood (41%).

Negative effects were reported due to the random drilling of wells used for irrigation, including a noticeable decline in underground water levels (95% of respondents), water scarcity (76%), increased costs of extracting water from the wells (66%), and a decrease in the percentage of land planted with irrigated crops (56%). Additionally, the percentages of both farmer migration and income decline were equal at 30% each (

Table 6. The negative effects of random drilling of wells in the targeted districts *.

Governorate	District	Decrease the Underground Water Level	Increase the Cost of Water Pull	Water Scarcity and Thirst	Shrinking Percentage of Irrigated Crops	The Migration of Some Farmers	Low Income
Aleppo	Afrin	96%	58%	90%	71%	23%	21%
	Al Bab	98%	87%	85%	76%	22%	28%
	A’zaz	100%	74%	96%	67%	22%	19%
	Jarablus	86%	42%	64%	33%	38%	22%
	Jebel Saman	96%	85%	58%	54%	27%	42%
Idleb	Ariha	90%	65%	35%	45%	5%	0%
	Harim	99%	75%	82%	54%	44%	44%
	Idleb	93%	67%	62%	43%	31%	43%
	Jisr-Ash-Shugur	96%	58%	88%	54%	42%	50%
2	9	95%	66%	76%	56%	30%	30%

Note: * n = 400, respondents were local councils (34), irrigated-land farmers (122), water-well owners (206), well-digging companies (14), and agricultural pharmacies (24).

).

The results showed that the highest percentage of decline in underground water levels was in the Azaz and Harim districts, at 100% and 99%, respectively. The highest percentage increase in water pull costs was in the Al-Bab and Jebel Saman districts by 87% and 85%, respectively. The highest levels of water scarcity were reported in the Azaz and Afrin districts, at 96% and 90%, respectively. The highest percentage of decline in areas planted with irrigated crops was 76% and 70% in the Al-Bab and Afrin districts, respectively. The highest rate of farmer migration was in the Harim and Jisr-Ash-Shugur districts by 44% and 42%, respectively. The highest rate of decline in income was in Jisr-Ash-Shugur, at 50%, and no rate of decline in income was mentioned in Ariha (Table 6). Furthermore, the results showed that 70% of the wells were deep wells, 15% were shallow wells, and 15% were surface hand-drilled wells.

The targeted local councils, water-well owners, well-digging companies, and agricultural pharmacies have reported a significant decrease (43%) in groundwater level in the past ten years based on their practical experience with the pipe lengths needed to extract water, where the decrease ranged from 27% to 54% in Aleppo and from 36% to 43% in the Idleb governorate. The Al-Bab district reported the highest decrease (62%) in groundwater level, followed by Azaz (54%) and Afrin (49%). This decline is attributed to the lack of watercourses, rivers, and dams (

Table 7. The decrease in the percentage of groundwater level in the past ten years in your area *.

Governorate	District	Yes	Percentage %
Aleppo	Afrin	100%	49%
Aleppo	Al Bab	100%	62%
Aleppo	A’zaz	96%	54%
Aleppo	Jarablus	79%	43%
Aleppo	Jebel Saman	50%	27%
Idleb	Ariha	100%	34%
Idleb	Harim	96%	43%
Idleb	Idleb	67%	34%
Idleb	Jisr-Ash-Shugur	100%	36%
2	9	88%	43%

Note: * n = 278, respondents were local councils (34), water-well owners (206), well-digging companies (14), and agricultural pharmacies (24).

).

According to respondents, the decrease in groundwater levels has led to a reduction in the amount of irrigation water available, prompting farmers to adopt various adaptation strategies. These strategies include reducing the number of irrigation times (90%), drilling a new well (81%), resorting to the cultivation of rain-fed crops (81%), shortening the duration of each irrigation session (60%), purchasing water from other sources (40%), and, as a last resort, emigrating to pursue other occupations (32%).

3.6. Challenges of Irrigation Water in NW Syria

The results of our research also indicated that there are numerous challenges and difficulties facing the water resources sector in Northwest Syria. The most prominent of these challenges were the high prices of fuel and electricity, increased random digging of wells, the high prices of pumps and irrigation equipment, a reduction in irrigated lands, the deterioration of water pumps and generators, weak irrigation systems, a lack of public water management, and finally, an increase in water salinity (Figure 2).

In total, 76% of well owners sell the water for drinking rather than using it for irrigation, especially in Afrin, Harem, and Idleb because these areas contain a high number of camps. The reasons for this trend include the increased demand for drinking water from the camps (91% of the respondents), the high price of drinking water compared with irrigation water (78%), the ease of selling drinking water—since it requires no labor force and is less risky as it is not linked to seasons and production (73%), the profit of selling drinking water being more guaranteed (73%), and the decreased income from irrigated crops and agricultural land (52%), in addition to a decrease in irrigated areas (40%).

Recently, well owners in NW Syria have preferred to sell water for drinking instead of using it for irrigation which causes a decrease in irrigated land (85%), a shifting away from irrigated crops cultivation (76%), higher prices for irrigated crops and a lack of water (64%), and decreased income from irrigated crops (53%).

3.7. Support Needed for the Irrigation Water in NW Syria

When stakeholders were asked about the most important interventions identified by local authorities and organizations in order to support the agriculture sector in northwestern Syria, the most prominent interventions required were as follows: supporting farmers with fuel and electricity costs, encouraging the use of alternative energies, especially solar energy, providing small grant projects to improve the irrigation system, the rehabilitation of wells and pumps, supplying farmers with production inputs, the cultivation of drought-tolerant varieties, building the capacity of local authorities in managing water sources, and, finally, forming water use associations 25% (Figure 3).

3.8. Annual Precipitation in Northwest Syria from 2000 to 2011

The 2006–2009 drought severely impacted irrigation water availability in Northwest Syria, causing a cascade of agricultural and socio-economic challenges. Surface water sources like rivers and streams saw drastically reduced flow rates, while increased reliance on groundwater led to rapid aquifer depletion and falling water tables. This water scarcity stressed existing irrigation infrastructure, forcing farmers to abandon water-intensive crops and sometimes resort to using untreated wastewater. Traditional irrigation methods became unsustainable, and while more efficient technologies like drip irrigation could have helped, a lack of resources and knowledge hindered their adoption. The resulting crop failures and loss of agricultural livelihoods triggered rural-to-urban migration and increased poverty. Moreover, the overexploitation of water resources during this period had long-lasting effects on aquifer health and soil quality, highlighting the critical need for sustainable water management practices and climate-resilient agricultural policies in the region (Figure 4).

4. Discussion

The presented results highlight a significant shift in the agricultural landscape of Northwest Syria after the year 2011. The data indicate an overall decline in the total cultivated area, encompassing both rain-fed and irrigated lands. The implications of this trend are noteworthy, as agriculture is a crucial sector for food security and economic stability in the region. The results also show a decline in five districts, with the highest percentage of decline in Al-Bab (60%), followed by Afrin and Jisr-Ash-Shugur; Al Bab has been suffering from a lack of water in the last five years and there is a real water crisis in the area [13]. The highest percentage of increase in irrigated lands was in Idleb (90%) which may be attributed to the high density of displaced people who came from all provinces across Syria and were willing to invest in agriculture and the lack of control of well-digging and water resources management [14,15]. The availability of arable and irrigated lands in Northwest Syria is a pivotal aspect of the region’s agricultural landscape. A decline was observed in cultivated areas post-2011, signaling potential challenges for food security and economic stability which leads to the need for strategic land-use management strategies to address these changes effectively [16]. The heterogeneity in results underscores the complex interplay of environmental, socio-economic, and political factors influencing agriculture in Northwest Syria. The decline in cultivated and irrigated areas may have cascading effects on food production, livelihoods, and local economies. Urgent attention is required to identify and address the root causes of these changes, fostering sustainable agricultural practices and ensuring food security in the region.

The results of this study highlight the agricultural diversity and irrigation patterns in Northwest Syria, shedding light on the significance of summer vegetables, winter crops, and cash crops in the region. The findings underscore the intricate relationship between cultivation practices, irrigation sources, and the unique geographic characteristics of each district. The types of crops irrigated in Northwest Syria exhibit a nuanced pattern. Summer vegetables and winter crops dominate, with district-specific variations influenced by local geography and available water resources [17]. The dominance of summer vegetables and winter crops as the primary irrigated cultivations, with percentages reaching 91% and 81%, respectively, underscores their economic importance in the studied areas. This aligns with previous research emphasizing the crucial role of these crops in sustaining livelihoods and ensuring food security [18,19].

The district-specific concentration of irrigated summer vegetable cultivation in Al-Bab, Azaz, Jebel Saman, Ariha, and Harim, reaching 100%, highlights the localized nature of certain crops. This phenomenon can be attributed to variations in soil type, temperature, and water availability, aligning with studies emphasizing the impact of microclimates on crop distribution [20]. The observed 100% cultivation rates of irrigated winter crops in Jebel Saman and irrigated trees in Ariha and Jisr-Ash-Shugur can also be attributed to the mountainous nature of these areas. Such terrain-specific cultivation aligns with studies emphasizing the impact of topography on agricultural practices, underscoring the need for tailored approaches based on geography [21].

The high rate of winter vegetable cultivation in the Idleb region (95%) is linked to its proximity to the city of Idleb, serving as a local market for these perishable products. Additionally, the concentration of fodder crop cultivation (79%) in the Al-Bab region is associated with the availability of livestock. These findings align with studies emphasizing the role of market proximity and livestock availability in shaping cultivation choices [22]. The observed diversity in crops is closely linked to the availability of various irrigation sources and the unique nature and geography of each district. Studies have emphasized the importance of diverse water sources in promoting agricultural resilience and sustainability [23].

The recent drought has exacerbated poverty and compelled people to migrate, particularly in Northwest Syria, encompassing Aleppo and Idleb. These regions are predominantly rural, with over 70% of the population relying on agriculture and livestock value chains for their livelihoods [18,24]. Additionally, agriculture heavily depends on water, and the scarcity caused by the drought has significantly impacted the farmers’ ability to sustain their crops. Irrigated agriculture, crucial for planning multiple seasons throughout the year, has been severely hampered by the water shortage [15,25]. The recent drought in Northwest Syria has profound socio-economic and environmental repercussions. Increased rates of displacement, migration, and poverty are attributed to the persistent drought conditions. Understanding these impacts is vital for crafting adaptive strategies [5].

The dominance of underground wells as the primary irrigation source, with 67% of the total population relying on them, highlights their pivotal role in supporting agriculture in the studied areas. This aligns with global trends emphasizing the importance of groundwater for irrigation, particularly in regions facing water scarcity [26]. The district-wise distribution of reliance on underground water reveals interesting patterns: the Jabal Saman and Idleb districts exhibit the highest dependency rates at 94% and 90%, respectively. This high reliance can be attributed to the absence of alternative water sources such as rivers, emphasizing the critical role of underground wells in sustaining agriculture in water-scarce regions [27].

Only three districts depend on permanent and seasonal rivers and lakes: the Euphrates River in Jarablus, the Afrin River in Afrin, and the Orontes River in Harim [24,28]. The highest percentage of rainwater collection is in Ariha due to the mountainous nature of the district and the presence of valleys. The Al-Bab district uses wastewater for irrigation, which might be due to the severe scarcity of irrigation water in the area [15,29].

The dependency on water resources for irrigation in Northwest Syria is multifaceted. Underground wells emerge as the primary irrigation source, with variations across districts. Ref. [30] delve into the distribution of irrigation sources, emphasizing the importance of understanding regional nuances for effective water management. In the Jisr-Ash-Shugur region, reliance is primarily on permanent river water as an irrigation source at a rate of 45%. This is due to the availability of water from the Orontes River, which irrigates large areas of agricultural land in this region. In the Jarablus, Afrin, and Harim districts, reliance on permanent rivers comes in second place as a source of irrigation after wells, at 30%, 19%, and 16%, respectively; this is due to the availability of permanent rivers in these areas (references). The Al-Bab district depends on wastewater as a second resource for irrigation after well water at 22%, which can be attributed to the region’s lack of clean water sources in general [31].

The adoption of the technique of collecting rainwater and using it for irrigation in the Ariha district stands at 12%, influenced by the mountainous nature of the region, the spread of tree planting, and the feasibility of applying this technique. Additionally, 17% and 12% of the Afrin and Jarablus districts rely on the water from lakes and dams as sources of irrigation because of its availability in these areas. The highest percentage of reliance on seasonal rivers as a source of irrigation was found in Jarablus, as this district contains many seasonal rivers where water flows during the rainy season for a few months and then dries up for the rest of the year.

The results highlight several factors contributing to the surge in well drilling, including drought conditions, declining groundwater levels, the absence of government regulation, and rising water prices. These findings echo global concerns about the impacts of climate change on water availability and the challenges associated with unregulated water extraction [32,33]. This study highlights the negative consequences of indiscriminate well drilling, including a significant decline in underground water levels, water scarcity, increased water pulling costs, and reduced areas planted with irrigated crops. These adverse effects underscore the urgent need for sustainable water management practices to prevent the further degradation of water resources [34,35]. The increase in drilling costs and the decline in income for farmers underscore the economic ramifications of escalating water challenges. Farmer migration, as a response to decreasing income and water availability, poses social challenges and underscores the interconnectedness of water resource management and livelihoods [36,37]. Research by [38] indicates a significant increase in wells numbers, with varied implications on groundwater levels and socio-economic factors. This study sheds light on the reasons behind increased well drilling and the subsequent challenges.

Sustainable groundwater use in Northwest Syria is vital for ensuring long-term water security, especially in a region where surface water is increasingly scarce due to conflict, climate change, and damaged infrastructure. Addressing the long-term viability of groundwater requires not only technical solutions but also robust political and institutional frameworks that can regulate its use, prevent over-extraction, and manage competing demands. Currently, fragmented governance and limited institutional capacity pose significant challenges, leading to unsustainable extraction rates that deplete aquifers and reduce water quality. Crafting holistic solutions demands stronger regulatory mechanisms, the establishment of groundwater management councils, and the inclusion of local stakeholders in decision-making processes. International development actors can play a role by supporting local institutions with capacity-building programs and technical expertise, while creating policies that encourage equitable groundwater sharing and conservation. By strengthening governance and institutional frameworks, Northwest Syria can move towards a more sustainable and resilient approach to managing its vital groundwater resources.

This study identifies several prominent challenges affecting the water resources sector. The high prices of fuel and electricity, along with the increasing random digging of wells, stand out as primary concerns. These challenges are compounded by the high costs of pumps and irrigation equipment, the shrinking of irrigated lands, and the deterioration of water pumps and generators. Weak irrigation systems, the lack of public water management, and an increase in water salinity further contribute to the complexity of the situation [39].

A notable trend observed is the inclination of well owners to sell water for drinking purposes instead of utilizing it for irrigation. This shift is particularly prevalent in areas with large concentrations of camps, such as Afrin, Harem, and Idlib. Reasons cited by well owners for this shift include increased demand for drinking water from camps, higher prices for drinking water compared with irrigation water, the ease and reduced risk in selling water for drinking, more guaranteed profits, a decreased income from irrigating crops, and a reduction in irrigated land.

The findings underscore the urgent need for integrated water management strategies that address the identified challenges comprehensively. This includes measures to mitigate the adverse impacts on agriculture, improve water-use efficiency, regulate well-drilling practices, and enhance public water management systems. Such strategies should consider the socio-economic context and the interplay of various factors affecting water resources in the region [40,41].

The high priority assigned to supporting farmers with fuel and electricity costs (85%) reflects the economic challenges faced by farmers in sustaining irrigation practices. Addressing these costs aligns with global initiatives promoting affordable and sustainable energy for agriculture [42,43].

The emphasis on encouraging the use of alternative energies, particularly solar energy (83%), aligns with the global push toward sustainable and renewable energy sources. Solar energy, being abundant and environmentally friendly, can contribute to reducing the reliance on traditional energy sources and mitigate the challenges associated with electricity costs [44].

The call for providing small grants for improving irrigation systems (82%) acknowledges the need for targeted financial support to enhance water-use efficiency. Investing in modern and efficient irrigation technologies can contribute to optimizing water resources and mitigating the challenges associated with weak irrigation systems [45]. The identified need for the rehabilitation of wells and pumps (78%) is crucial for maintaining and restoring essential water infrastructure. This aligns with global efforts to enhance water storage and extraction systems, ensuring the longevity and reliability of water supply mechanisms [46].

The emphasis on the cultivation of drought-tolerant varieties (59%) aligns with climate-smart agriculture strategies. Developing and promoting crop varieties contributes to climate adaptation and ensures food security in water-stressed regions [47,48].

Local governance structures in Northwest Syria play a critical role in water resource management, overseeing water distribution, infrastructure maintenance, and conflict resolution over scarce resources. However, these structures often face challenges such as limited resources, political fragmentation, and inadequate technical expertise, leading to inconsistent water management and unequal access. In some areas, local councils prioritize urban centers over rural communities, which further strains agricultural livelihoods dependent on water. Strengthening local governance and enhancing their capacity is crucial to improving water management and ensuring equitable access to resources.

Promoting alternative energy sources like solar-powered water systems and improving irrigation infrastructure can provide actionable solutions, drawing from case studies in similar post-conflict regions. For example, in Yemen, solar-powered water systems have reduced reliance on fuel and improved the reliability of water supply, while in Iraq’s Nineveh province, modernizing irrigation networks has boosted agricultural productivity. By adopting similar approaches in Northwest Syria, local governance structures can make water management more sustainable and efficient, especially with capacity-building initiatives that equip local councils with the skills to manage and maintain these systems. Such efforts, supported by international NGOs and local communities, can contribute to long-term recovery and resilience in the region.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, since 2011, a severe drought has aggravated the considerable decline in cultivated and irrigated fields in Northwest Syria. Irrigated lands declined by 8.5% of the total cultivated area, a 15.3% decrease; however, certain areas, such as Idleb, recorded increases. Due to geographic advantages, certain locations specialize in irrigation where summer vegetables and winter crops are the main uses. Due to increased poverty and displacement brought on by the drought, many people have chosen to migrate or change their economic approaches. Since 2011, the number of groundwater wells—which are currently the main source of irrigation—has expanded by 107%, resulting in a severe water shortage and increased irrigation expenses. Today, selling drinking water takes precedence over irrigation for many well owners. The area has to deal with issues like expensive fuel and energy, haphazard well digging, aging machinery, and inadequate irrigation systems. In order to promote agriculture in Northwest Syria, stakeholders point out the necessity of subsidies for fuel and electricity, the development of alternative energy sources, upgrades to irrigation systems, well rehabilitation, the supply of agricultural inputs, and better local water management.

A key recommendation for ensuring sustainable groundwater use in Northwest Syria is to establish local groundwater management councils. These councils, comprising local authorities, technical experts, and community representatives, would regulate extraction, promote conservation, and prevent overuse. International support should focus on building the technical capacity of these institutions to effectively manage groundwater resources, ensuring equitable and sustainable use for long-term water security in the region.