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Article

Research on Operation and Maintenance Management of Subsurface Drip Irrigation System in the North China Plain: A Case Study in the Heilonggang Region

by
Yudong Zheng
1,†,
Hongkai Dang
1,†,
Xin Hui
2,
Dongyu Cai
3,
Haohui Zhang
4,
Jingyuan Xue
5,
Xuetong Liu
1,
Junyong Ma
1,
Caiyun Cao
1,
Xindong Niu
6,
Chunlian Zheng
1,* and
Kejiang Li
1,*
1
Key Laboratory of Crop Drought Resistance Research of Hebei Province, Institute of Dryland Farming, Hebei Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Hengshui 053000, China
2
College of Water Resources and Architectural Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
3
Hebei Science and Technology Innovation Service Center, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
4
College of Water Resources and Civil Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
5
Institute for Disaster Management and Reconstruction, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
6
Technical Department, NETAFIM (Beijing) Co., Ltd., Beijing 100083, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Water 2025, 17(4), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040508
Submission received: 28 November 2024 / Revised: 4 February 2025 / Accepted: 5 February 2025 / Published: 11 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Perspective on Hydrology and Water Resources Management in Complex Urban Areas)
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Abstract

:
Subsurface drip irrigation is an advanced technique that significantly enhances agricultural water efficiency and conserves irrigation resources. The Heilonggang region is highly representative of the maize–wheat rotation system in China. This region was selected for conducting operations and maintenance experiments on subsurface drip irrigation systems. The primary objective of this study was to determine the most suitable type of drip tape for application in the North China Plain and to identify specific maintenance measures necessary to ensure the long-term functionality of subsurface drip irrigation systems. The experiment was conducted in Jing County, Hengshui City. Anti-blocking drip tape (Netafim Co., Ltd. Beijing, China) with automatic functionality was evenly laid in the test area. The experimental area was divided into six rotational irrigation groups. The key parameter examined in this single-factor experiment was the drip tape wall thickness, with values of 0.2, 0.225, 0.25, 0.28, 0.31, and 0.38 mm. Drip tape treatments were randomly sampled in rotational irrigation groups, and there were three repeat plots in each treatment. Each replicate plot contained ten drip irrigation belts spaced 60 cm apart, with an interval of more than 2 m between adjacent plots. The subsurface drip irrigation system was installed in October 2023. Prior to irrigation, drip tape troubleshooting was conducted and recorded manually on 12 March 2024 (wheat regreening stage) and 29 June 2024 (maize-sowing stage). The experimental findings indicated that the primary factor influencing the stability of the irrigation system was the wall thickness of the drip tapes, while other system components operated efficiently. A significant correlation was observed between the wall thickness of the drip tape and the number of water leakage points (p < 0.05), with an absolute correlation coefficient exceeding 0.9. The number of leakage points in drip tapes with wall thicknesses of 0.2–0.28 mm (267 instances) was significantly higher than those with wall thicknesses of 0.31–0.38 mm (29 instances), primarily due to damage caused by mole crickets and wireworms. Following the injection of 40% phoxim, 2.5% lambda-cyhalothrin, and 70% imidacloprid insecticides (at a cost of 16.7 USD·ha−1) into the subsurface drip irrigation system, the insect pests were nearly eradicated within one month. A cumulative cost evaluation over a 6–10-year period recommended the use of drip tapes with a wall thickness of 0.31 mm and the application of insecticides every 1–2 months to maintain optimal system performance in this region. These measures can effectively support the stable operation of this irrigation technique at a relatively low cost.

1. Introduction

Water resources serve as a crucial material basis and a fundamental guarantee for human survival and the maintenance of the ecological cycle [1]. China, as a major agricultural country, faces a severe shortage of agricultural water, with its domestic water resources accounting for merely 6% of the world’s total [2]. The North China Plain accounts for more than 35% of China’s total grain production [3], yet its water resources suffer from severe scarcity, with an annual irrigation water deficit of approximately 300 mm [4]. Over the past decade, the groundwater table in this region has been declining at an average rate of 1.35 m/year, primarily due to the extensive reliance on groundwater as the primary source for irrigation [5]. Furthermore, the prevalent flood irrigation method in this region demonstrates an effective water utilization rate that is 3.48–14.46% lower than that of drip irrigation technology [6], leading to significant water wastage. Consequently, the promotion and adoption of advanced, highly efficient water-saving technologies, such as subsurface drip irrigation, present a viable solution to address this issue.
Subsurface drip irrigation employs a buried pipe system to deliver water or fertilizer solution directly into the soil, allowing it to diffuse into the crop root layer through capillary action or gravity [7]. This technique facilitates the optimal absorption of water and nutrients [8] and significantly reduces water loss caused by evaporation, deep percolation, or runoff [9], thereby enhancing water and fertilizer utilization efficiency [10]. As a result, subsurface drip irrigation has been widely adopted over the past 30 years [11]. Moreover, the implementation of subsurface drip irrigation ensures that the soil surface remains dry, preventing crust formation and minimizing damage to the soil structure [12]. This dry surface condition further serves to effectively inhibit both the growth of field weeds and the proliferation of fungal diseases [13]. However, a major challenge associated with subsurface drip irrigation lies in the long-term exposure of its components to the soil environment, making them vulnerable to damage from insects and rodents. Such damage can lead to water leakage, uneven irrigation across the field, and reduced service life of the system, which in turn increases maintenance costs and poses a significant barrier to the widespread adoption of this technology. To address this issue, researchers have conducted various studies aimed at preventing biological damage to drip tapes.
For instance, Sabine et al. [14] conducted screening experiments to identify volatile plant secondary metabolites or semi-natural substances capable of interfering with rodent feeding behaviors, employing both rearing and fencing trials [15]. NETAFIM Co., Ltd. [16] proposes the establishment of a buffer zone around the field to prevent rodent intrusion and recommends the application of deterrents such as metformin, Vapam, or Tellone EC. Similarly, Ayars et al. [17] demonstrated that the use of soil fumigants (e.g., Vapam, ICI Chemicals) in combination with appropriate rodenticides, applied both on the surface and below ground, effectively mitigates insect and rodent infestations.
Frequent leakage in drip tapes can result in localized functional failures within irrigation systems, leading to increased repair costs. Additionally, the repair process requires excavation of the soil above the drip tapes, which demands significant labor and time. These associated construction expenses impose a substantial financial burden on agricultural producers, particularly small-scale farmers. However, drip tapes installed underground facilitate the operation of agricultural machinery on the field surface while also preventing the aging of drip tapes caused by ultraviolet radiation [18]. Thus, subsurface drip irrigation systems demonstrate considerable potential for long-term application [9]. With proper maintenance, some subsurface drip irrigation systems have been reported to function effectively for up to 29 years [19], thereby leading to significant cost reductions. Despite the relatively high initial investment required for subsurface drip irrigation [20], it offers substantial advantages, including water conservation [21] and minimized fertilizer waste [22]. This technology not only eliminates the need for drip tape retrieval costs but also contributes to lower operational expenses, such as those related to irrigation water, electricity consumption, and weed control. These benefits help to offset the initial investment over the long term [23]. While reducing costs is important, the primary means of enhancing the economic viability of subsurface drip irrigation lies in increasing crop yields [24]. Under optimal crop selection and irrigation management practices, subsurface drip irrigation systems can achieve a positive cumulative cash flow within the second or third year of operation [23,25]. From a long-term perspective, subsurface drip irrigation presents a viable alternative to traditional surface irrigation methods [26]. Simultaneously, the development of cost-effective and easy-to-maintain drip irrigation systems is essential to support small-scale farmers [27]. Furthermore, due to the relatively high initial installation and operational costs (approximately 4713 USD ha−1), the adoption of subsurface drip irrigation technology in the North China region remains limited, accounting for less than 1% of the total irrigated area [28]. The thickness of the drip tape is a critical factor that influences material input, service life, and maintenance demands [29]. Furthermore, significant variations exist in climate conditions, material costs, and maintenance expenses between China and countries with well-established subsurface drip irrigation systems, which may impact the overall feasibility and efficiency of system implementation.
Therefore, this study aims to determine the optimal wall thickness for drip tapes by balancing cost-effectiveness and service life. Simultaneously, it seeks to establish specific maintenance strategies to ensure the efficient and long-term operation of subsurface drip irrigation systems. In this study, the Heilonggang region was selected as a representative area of the North China Plain to conduct a series of experiments focusing on the operation and maintenance of subsurface drip irrigation techniques. The study specifically investigates the performance of drip tapes with varying thicknesses across consecutive wheat and maize growing seasons while also developing targeted repair strategies for different types of leakage. Furthermore, an analysis of input costs was performed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the economic feasibility of the system. This research contributes to a better understanding of the costs associated with the establishment and maintenance of subsurface drip irrigation systems in the North China Plain. Based on the findings, appropriate drip tape specifications and maintenance strategies suitable for large-scale implementation can be identified, providing valuable insights for future agricultural applications.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Site

The Heilonggang region examined in this study is situated in the eastern part of the North China Plain, with an average annual precipitation of only 509 mm. However, the region experiences high water evaporation rates, ranging from 1200 to 1400·year−1 [30]. Agricultural water consumption in the Heilonggang region accounts for approximately 78% of the total water usage. As a result, it represents one of the most critical areas in the North China Plain where the contradiction between water and land resource supply and demand is most pronounced. Thus, conducting research on water-saving irrigation technologies in this region holds significant importance [31]. The experimental site is located within the demonstration base of Zhiqing Agricultural Cooperatives in Hengshui City, Hebei Province (latitude 37°37′05″, longitude 115°58′48″, as shown in Figure 1), at an elevation of approximately 21 m. The region features a temperate monsoon climate, with an average annual temperature ranging from 11.0 to 13.3 °C over multiple years. The accumulated temperature above 0 °C throughout the year is approximately 4500–5100 °C, with an annual sunshine duration of 2509 h and a frost-free period of 188 days. The average annual precipitation is approximately 500 mm, of which 70% is concentrated between July and September, while the average annual evaporation reaches 1785 mm [32]. The soil at the experimental site is classified as clayey loam, with a pH value of 8.04 in the 0–100 cm soil layer. The field water capacity is 28% (mass ratio), with a bulk density of 1.38 g/cm3. The organic matter content is 17.6 g/kg, available phosphorus is 16.8 mg/kg, available potassium is 164.4 mg/kg, and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen is 89.1 mg/kg. This experimental site, located in the Heilonggang region of eastern Hebei Province, is characterized by scarce surface freshwater resources, with wheat–maize circular cropping as the predominant grain cultivation system. Prior to the implementation of the subsurface drip irrigation system, furrow irrigation was the primary irrigation method used in the region. Groundwater, pumped from an electric engine well at a depth of 350 m, serves as the primary irrigation water source, infiltrating the soil in a non-point source manner. Due to the high labor costs and long irrigation cycles required, furrow irrigation in this region is typically carried out at low frequencies with large water volumes. Fertilization is traditionally applied manually by broadcasting fertilizer onto the soil surface, followed by irrigation to facilitate fertilizer infiltration into the soil. Therefore, the selected experimental site is highly representative of the North China Plain in terms of its geographical, climatic, and ecological characteristics [8,10]. It provides substantial practical value and relevance for conducting subsurface drip irrigation operations and maintenance experiments.

2.2. Experimental Materials

In this experiment, the commonly used type of drip tape was selected for installation [33], and the manufacturer was NETAFIM (Guangzhou, China) Agricultural Technology Co., Ltd. The drip tapes were buried to a depth of 0.3 m, and the specific categories were TYP+22,150, TYP+16,080, TYP+16,100, and TYP+16,125. In the drip irrigation system, 6 kg 110 mm PVC pipes were used for the main pipes, 6 kg 90 mm PVC pipes for the branch pipes, and 6 kg 63 mm PVC pipes for the drainage pipes. The buried depth of these pipelines was 0.6 m. The pressure regulating device used a 3″ valve, which was located at the edge of the field. The system uses a 4″ water meter, and its filtration system uses centrifugal filters, sand filters, and disc filters to purify the water source in stages [17]. The design flow rate of this drip irrigation system was 40 m3/h, and the pressure head at the outlet of the surface water pump exceeded 25 m. In addition, pesticides compliant with local regulations may also be used as needed. For example, Phoxim is characterized by a broad insecticidal spectrum and strong knockdown effect, primarily acting through contact and stomach toxicity. It lacks systemic properties but is highly effective against Lepidoptera larvae. However, phoxim is photolabile and decomposes rapidly under field conditions, resulting in a short residual period and minimal residue risk. Nevertheless, when applied to the soil, its degradation rate is slow, with a residual period extending up to three months, making it particularly suitable for controlling subterranean pests. Lambda-cyhalothrin acts by inhibiting the conduction of insect neuronal axons, exhibiting a broad insecticidal spectrum, high biological activity, and rapid efficacy. It is particularly effective against a wide range of pests, including those belonging to the orders Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Hemiptera. The half-life of lambda-cyhalothrin in soil ranges from 22 to 82 days, ensuring prolonged pest control effects. Imidacloprid is a highly effective neonicotinoid insecticide that offers a broad spectrum of pest control, characterized by its high efficiency, low toxicity, minimal residue, and strong resistance to pest adaptation. Moreover, it is considered safe for humans, animals, and plants. Upon exposure, imidacloprid disrupts the normal functioning of the pest’s central nervous system, leading to paralysis and eventual death. This insecticide exhibits rapid action, delivering significant control effects within one day of application, with a residual efficacy lasting up to 25 days.

2.3. Experimental Design

The experimental site, covering an area of 5.3 hectares, was divided into six rotational irrigation groups, each representing a different treatment. These groups were labeled No. 1–6 and arranged sequentially from west to east (see Figure 2 for details of the plot layout). In this experiment, the thickness of the drip tape was selected as the key variable to simulate actual production and application conditions [28]. Detailed information on each rotational irrigation group and the corresponding drip tape specifications is provided in Table 1. The construction and layout of the experimental system were completed during the wheat-sowing stage in 2023. A systematic investigation of drip tape operational failures was conducted during the wheat regreening stage and the maize-sowing stage in 2024.

2.4. Data Analysis

Microsoft Excel 2013 was utilized for data processing and basic statistical analysis. IBM SPSS Statistics 22.0 was employed to conduct Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and significance tests. Post hoc multiple comparisons were performed using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) and Duncan methods. A p-value of <0.05 was considered to indicate statistical significance. All charts and graphical representations were generated using Origin 8.5 software.

3. Results

3.1. Effect of Drip Belt Wall Thickness on Irrigation System Operation

On-site investigations conducted on 12 March and 29 June 2024 revealed that while the water supply and filtration components of the drip irrigation system were functioning stably, varying numbers of surface water accumulation points were observed across the experimental areas. Excavation at these accumulation sites confirmed that the observed water pooling resulted from leaks within the buried drip irrigation system. A total of 222 and 83 leakage points were identified during the inspections on 12 March and 29 June, respectively. The occurrence of such issues has severely impacted the proper operation of the subsurface drip irrigation system, highlighting the urgent need to identify the underlying causes of water leakage. Therefore, this analysis focuses on drip tape wall thickness as a key factor for further investigation.
Initially, the data from the two leakage events, along with the corresponding drip tape wall thickness, were statistically analyzed and visualized in Figure 3. The figure clearly indicates a correlation between drip tape wall thickness and the frequency of leakage points, demonstrating that the number of leakage incidents decreases with increasing wall thickness. To further substantiate this observation, a more detailed analysis of the data was conducted to validate the proposed hypothesis.
The correlation analysis results (Figure 4) indicate that the R2 value between the parameters exceeds 0.8, with an absolute correlation coefficient greater than 0.9. These findings suggest a significant relationship between the drip irrigation system leakage events observed in March and June 2024 and the wall thickness of the drip tape. Furthermore, a substantial number of mole crickets and wireworms were discovered near the damaged drip tapes during on-site maintenance (Figure 5), with distinct insect bite marks observed at the leakage points (Figure 6).
Additionally, a small number of Q-flex pipe failures were identified among the water leakage points recorded on 12 March 2024. These failures were primarily attributed to improper tightening of the pull ring at the connection between the Q-flex pipe and the drip tape during installation or damage resulting from the backfilling of pit soil (Figure 7). However, these issues were nearly absent from the subsequent investigation conducted on 29 June 2024.
In this study, insect bites were identified as the primary cause of water leakage in the drip tapes, as pests such as mole crickets and wireworms tend to burrow into the soil to create shelters for warmth and seek water during the spring season [34]. Field investigations indicated that leakage points caused by insect activity were randomly distributed across the entire experimental site. The distribution and frequency of leakage occurrences in the drip tapes, categorized by different types of damage, are presented in Table 2.
A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to examine the relationship between the number of water leakage points caused by insect damage and the wall thickness of the drip tapes. The results (Table 3) indicated that wall thickness had a statistically significant effect on the number of leakage points, providing further validation for the assumptions proposed in this section.

3.2. The Costs of System Construction and Maintenance

In this study, water leakage in the drip irrigation system within the experimental area was primarily classified into three categories: damage to the drip tapes caused by insect bites and other external factors, damage to the Q-flex pipe (the connecting pipe between the branch pipe and the drip tape) resulting from excessive pulling during installation, and inadequate connection or fastening between the Q-flex pipe and other pipeline components. Based on the different types of water leakage, corresponding repair processes were implemented accordingly.
The repair process for drip tapes damaged by insect bites involves several critical steps. First, the affected area is carefully excavated to accurately locate the damaged section of the tape. Subsequently, the drip tape is cut based on the extent of the damage. Finally, the damaged section is restored using a pull-ring connector, ensuring a secure and tight connection to prevent further water leakage. A visual representation of the maintenance process is provided in Figure 8.
For Q-flex pipes experiencing leakage issues, remedial actions can include either wrapping the affected area with waterproof electrical tape or completely replacing the pipe, depending on the severity of the damage. It is crucial to ensure that a distinct clicking sound is heard when connecting the pull-ring of the Q-flex pipe to the drip tape, as this indicates a secure and proper fit. Failure to adequately tighten the pull ring may result in persistent leakage. A visual representation of the maintenance process is provided in Figure 9.
Furthermore, regardless of the type of subsurface drip irrigation system, it is essential to regularly apply insecticides for pest control and conduct routine maintenance to prevent water leakage. In this study, three insecticides were utilized: phoxim, lambda-cyhalothrin, and imidacloprid (Table 4). Additionally, the study conducted by Li Yanfeng et al. [35] demonstrates that, under conditions of integrated water and fertilizer drip irrigation, an operational strategy consisting of irrigating for one-fourth of the total duration, followed by fertilization for half of the time and concluding with a pipe flushing phase for the remaining one-fourth, is the most effective approach. Based on the experimental findings, the following operational and maintenance recommendations are proposed: (1) Prepare the insecticide solution in the fertilizer tank and stir it using a mixer for 10–20 min to ensure the uniform dissolution of solid particles. (2) Utilize an intelligent fertilization machine or an external injection pump to achieve uniform distribution of the solution throughout the system. (3) After injecting the insecticide solution, continue flushing the pipes with clean water for an additional 15–20 min to prevent clogging and ensure system efficiency.
This experiment incorporated pesticide applications following the completion of repair activities in March and June. Subsequent leakage repairs and pesticide applications were conducted in September and November of the same year. The number of water leakage points recorded prior to each repair is illustrated in Figure 10. The results demonstrate a notable improvement in the overall performance of the drip irrigation system following pesticide application. Comprehensive details on the specific insecticide dosages and associated costs are provided in Table 4.
Pesticide applications were carried out in March, July, September, and November of 2024. As illustrated in Figure 10, maintaining a spraying interval of two months effectively controlled the number of water leakage points. Based on this observation, it is recommended that insecticides be applied at intervals of 1–2 months. Given that the wheat and maize growing seasons primarily occur between March and November, it is proposed to implement a pesticide application schedule in March, May, July, September, and November each year. This schedule results in a total of five spraying events annually, with leakage repair operations conducted prior to each insecticide application. Following this schedule, the approximate operating costs of the subsurface drip irrigation system were estimated. To facilitate this estimation, the number of leaks recorded in September and November was averaged, and the calculated mean value was used to project the expected number of leaks at each planned pesticide application. The detailed numerical values are provided in Table 5.
Field repair of leakage points requires a minimum of two workers operating simultaneously, with an average repair capacity of 16 leak points per day. The labor cost is estimated at 100 yuan per worker per day. Based on these findings, the approximate maintenance costs for drip tapes of varying wall thicknesses were calculated and are summarized in Table 6.
Based on the above findings, drip tapes with a wall thickness greater than 0.3 mm demonstrated fewer leakage occurrences compared to those with a wall thickness of less than 0.3 mm. Therefore, it is recommended that agricultural managers prioritize the selection of drip tapes with increased wall thickness for installation. Although the initial investment associated with thicker drip tapes is relatively higher (Table 7), this approach may provide greater convenience in future maintenance operations and potentially lead to a reduction in long-term maintenance costs.
To determine the most cost-effective type of drip tape, the cumulative input cost was calculated. The installation cost of the subsurface drip irrigation system is estimated at 3075.8 USD/ha (calculated based on a comprehensive assessment of local construction costs and material/equipment expenses). Considering factors such as the purchase of drip tapes, annual maintenance, and pesticide expenses, the cumulative investment for each type of drip tape with varying service lifespans was computed. As illustrated in Figure 11, the investment cost for the drip tape with a wall thickness of 0.31 mm becomes lower than that of the 0.20 mm drip tape starting from the fourth year. Similarly, the investment cost of the 0.31 mm drip tape surpasses the cost-effectiveness of the 0.25 mm drip tape from the sixth year onward. However, the investment cost of the drip tape with a wall thickness of 0.38 mm remains consistently the highest among all four types of drip tapes. Therefore, under the assumption that the service life of the subsurface drip irrigation system ranges from 6 to 10 years, the 0.31 mm drip tape is recommended as the most cost-effective option, offering significant reductions in both manual inspection and maintenance efforts.

4. Discussion

4.1. Protecting Drip Tapes from Field Pests

The repair of drip tapes poses significant challenges in the maintenance of subsurface drip irrigation systems [36], primarily because the performance of underground irrigators cannot be directly observed in terms of outflow and irrigation effects. When system failures occur, additional time, labor, and material resources are often required for repairs [37]. Findings from this study suggest that the potential risk of pest damage in the area should be thoroughly assessed, and an appropriate pest control and prevention strategy should be implemented prior to the installation of a subsurface drip irrigation system [28].
The pest control strategies discussed in this study primarily focus on chemical measures; however, effective pest management can also be achieved through agricultural, physical, and biological approaches. Agricultural measures include the selection of pest-resistant crop varieties [38], which help to mitigate pest damage. Physical control methods involve soil tillage to utilize solar radiation for the eradication of insect eggs and the application of fermented organic fertilizers, such as sheep and rabbit manure, which act as natural pest repellents [39]. Additionally, physical measures such as the deployment of insect traps [40] and the installation of protective barriers [41] can effectively reduce pest populations and inhibit their reproduction. Biological control strategies involve the application of biopesticides, such as Beauveria bassiana, to suppress pathogenic microorganisms [42], as well as the introduction of natural predators, including beneficial insects and birds [43], to prey on pests and minimize their impact. Future research should focus on the integrated application of these pest control methods to enhance the protection of drip tapes against damage caused by mole crickets and wireworms.
Moreover, previous research by Gu [44] highlighted that rodent infestations can significantly damage drip tapes, complicating the repair process. However, recent efforts in the North China Plain have effectively controlled rodent populations, with only a single suspected rodent bite incident reported in this study. This reduction in rodent activity is largely attributed to the widespread implementation of large-scale flood irrigation, which saturates the soil surface and reduces air permeability, thereby disrupting rodent respiration in their burrows. Additionally, the pesticide treatment of crop seeds further contributes to reduced rodent activity in the fields. Nevertheless, with the cessation of flood irrigation practices, the field environment is expected to become more conducive to rodent proliferation [45], necessitating the implementation of rodent control measures. Rodent management in agricultural fields should adopt season-specific strategies across spring, summer, and autumn [46]. Spring is considered the optimal period for rodent population control, as rodents emerge from hibernation in search of food and enter their peak breeding season. During summer, efforts should focus on eliminating pregnant and lactating rodents, which have increased food consumption, reduced vigilance, and are more susceptible to baiting. In autumn, when rodent populations peak, a combination of control methods can be deployed to maximize effectiveness. Rodent control methods can be categorized into chemical, physical, and biological approaches. Chemical control involves the use of highly effective, low-toxicity anticoagulant rodenticides, such as bromadiolone and warfarin [47], which can rapidly reduce rodent populations but may pose environmental and ecological risks [48]. Physical control methods, including the use of traps [49], sealing rodent burrows, and flooding the burrows with water [50], offer pollution-free solutions, albeit with higher costs and lower efficiency. Biological control measures leverage natural predators, such as snakes, cats, and birds, or biocides to manage rodent populations, ensuring ecological sustainability while effectively reducing rodent damage [51]. The integrated application of these control strategies will help mitigate rodent-induced damage to subsurface drip irrigation systems. Netafim Co., Ltd. [16] has introduced a range of preventive technologies, including the establishment of buffer zones, filling soil gaps using tractor tires, and the strategic application of chemicals, all of which can effectively safeguard subsurface drip irrigation systems from rodent damage.

4.2. Cost Input and Economic Benefit

From a water conservation perspective, subsurface drip irrigation provides significant advantages over other irrigation methods [52]. As reported by Lamm et al. [53], drip irrigation can reduce irrigation water consumption by approximately 25%. Thus, subsurface drip irrigation presents itself as a strong alternative to sprinkler irrigation. However, the current cost of water accounts for only a small fraction of total economic inputs, which may limit the perceived economic benefits of adopting this technology [54]. In terms of investment costs, O’Brien et al. [36] determined that an operational scale of 25.9 hectares over a ten-year period serves as the threshold for achieving net economic benefits when comparing the two irrigation technologies. Similarly, Bosch et al. [48] found that the cost of subsurface drip irrigation remains relatively stable as the irrigated area decreases, whereas the cost of center-pivot irrigation increases substantially. In the North China Plain, the agricultural landscape is characterized by a large number of production managers and fragmented fields of varying sizes, which facilitates the adoption of drip irrigation technology. According to Darouich et al. [52], the initial investment cost of a drip irrigation system ranges between 1361.9 and 2406.4 USD·ha−1, accounting for 24–53% of the total annual farm income. Naturally, the specific economic benefits of subsurface drip irrigation are closely linked to factors such as crop type, yield potential, and market prices. In summary, the promotion of subsurface drip irrigation faces substantial challenges related to various cost inputs, with upfront investment and ongoing maintenance emerging as the primary constraints. Nevertheless, a significant challenge exists in balancing water-saving policies with the need for a satisfactory return on investment. Therefore, it is imperative for policymakers and stakeholders to enhance financial and technical support for agricultural producers to facilitate the timely implementation of water conservation initiatives and ensure the sustainable development of irrigation practices.
The widespread adoption of deeply buried drip irrigation systems necessitates an optimized balance between sustainability and cost investment to address the long-term demands of agricultural development. Scientific management and precise system design play a crucial role in minimizing system damage and improving economic efficiency [55]. The depth and spacing of drip tape placement not only influence the system’s operational efficiency and maintenance costs but also have profound long-term effects on crop planting structures and farming practices [28]. Inadequate burial depth can leave the drip tape susceptible to damage during mechanical operations, leading to substantially higher repair and replacement costs. Furthermore, the reliance on highly skilled labor for the construction and maintenance of deeply buried drip irrigation systems poses a significant constraint to their implementation. This technology demands specialized teams capable of precise planning and execution during the installation phase, including the accurate burial of drip tape, system commissioning, and routine maintenance. Such operations require a high level of technical expertise and experience from the workforce [38]. In regions where skilled labor is scarce, this heavy reliance not only prolongs project timelines but also increases the risk of system performance issues and future maintenance challenges resulting from improper installation procedures. Moreover, the excessive dependence on labor substantially escalates cost investments, particularly in areas with high labor costs, where this challenge becomes even more pronounced. Although construction supervision can enhance project quality, the associated rise in labor demand and extended time requirements further intensify the economic burden [7]. Overall, the dependency on specialized labor presents a considerable obstacle to the widespread adoption of deeply buried drip irrigation technology. To address these challenges, it is imperative to increase policy subsidies, enhance the automation of construction processes, and actively promote technical training initiatives. These measures can effectively reduce labor dependency and support the broader adaptation of deeply buried drip irrigation systems to meet the diverse agricultural needs of various regions.

4.3. Research Prospects

Research findings indicate that the water use efficiency of drip irrigation technology is significantly higher compared to surface irrigation methods [53]. Specifically, subsurface drip irrigation has been demonstrated to enhance water use efficiency for wheat and maize by 10.1–11.3% and 4.8–8.7%, respectively, when compared to surface drip irrigation [54]. Despite these advantages, subsurface drip irrigation has not yet been widely adopted in the Heilonggang region. This study proposes suitable drip tape types and corresponding maintenance strategies tailored to the wheat–maize rotation system in this region. Future research will focus on evaluating the water-saving performance and overall water use efficiency of the proposed system. In addition to performance evaluation, the long-term application of subsurface drip irrigation systems may lead to imbalances in soil salinity and nutrient distribution, which requires further investigation. Excessive salinity in irrigation water or improper fertilization practices can result in salt accumulation in the root zone, leading to nutrient deficiencies and negatively impacting crop growth [55]. To mitigate these challenges, an integrated water and fertilizer management strategy should be implemented prior to planting, taking into account baseline soil conditions and the crop’s developmental stages [56]. Furthermore, irrigation plans should incorporate water-soluble fertilizers that align with the nutrient uptake requirements of the crops to optimize growth and productivity [57].
Ensuring smooth water flow within the irrigation system is of paramount importance, as clogging in drip irrigation systems represents a significant challenge [58], potentially leading to uneven nutrient distribution in the soil. Given that subsurface drip irrigation systems are installed underground, they are particularly susceptible to clogging over time. Clogs can be classified into three categories—physical, chemical, and biological—based on the composition and formation mechanisms of the blocking material [59]. To address these issues, this study incorporates a multi-stage filtration system, which includes a combination of sand-gravel and screen filters, effectively removing suspended particles, organic matter, and algae from the water supply, thereby enhancing water quality [60]. Moreover, the use of pressure-compensating, low-flow emitters in this study [61] serves to mitigate clogging risks associated with negative pressure-induced soil suction and root intrusion. To further prevent sediment accumulation within the drip tapes during system operation, periodic flushing protocols will be implemented. For instance, bi-weekly chlorination treatments [62] or the application of OSU-142 Bacillus subtilis [63] can effectively suppress microbial growth within the emitters. By integrating these preventative measures over the long term, the incidence of emitter clogging can be significantly reduced, ultimately enhancing the operational efficiency and sustainability of deeply buried drip irrigation systems.
Future research should focus on further exploring maintenance strategies and cost implications to ensure the sustainable implementation of subsurface drip irrigation systems in the long term.

5. Conclusions

This study, conducted in the Heilonggang region, investigated the operational performance and maintenance strategies of subsurface drip irrigation systems under real-world agricultural conditions. The findings suggest that, from the perspective of long-term cost efficiency, drip tape with a wall thickness of 0.31 mm is the most suitable option when the system’s service life is expected to range between 6 and 10 years. Regular system inspections and maintenance, including a 30 min water test, should be performed at intervals of 1–2 months, alongside the timely application of insecticides to mitigate potential pest-related damage. Given that the primary growing seasons for wheat and maize extend from March to November, it is recommended to implement an insecticide application schedule in March, May, July, September, and November, resulting in a total of five treatments per year, with leakage repairs conducted prior to each application. Furthermore, to maintain system integrity and prevent clogging, the irrigation system should be flushed with clean water for 15–20 min following each pesticide application. Furthermore, irrigation and fertilization practices in production management should be guided by the crop growth patterns and soil nutrient content. Water-soluble fertilizers should be utilized to enable the integrated application of water and nutrients, ensuring efficient nutrient uptake and optimized resource utilization. Despite these insights, the long-term operational performance and durability of thickened drip tapes in local conditions require further validation through extended field trials to optimize their adaptation to the agricultural environment of the North China Plain.

Author Contributions

Data curation, X.L., J.M., C.C., and X.N.; funding acquisition, C.Z. and K.L.; methodology, X.H.; resources, J.X.; software, D.C. and H.Z.; writing—original draft, Y.Z. and H.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by HAAFS International Science and Technology Cooperation Project (2024KJCXZX-HZS-GH01), National Key Research and Development Project (2023YFD1900802-02), Hengshui station of maize industry system in Hebei province.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available upon request from corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Xindong Niu was employed by the company NETAFIM (Beijing) Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Location of the experimental site.
Figure 1. Location of the experimental site.
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Figure 2. Schematic of rotational irrigation groups with different serial numbers.
Figure 2. Schematic of rotational irrigation groups with different serial numbers.
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Figure 3. Leakage point number of each rotational irrigation group.
Figure 3. Leakage point number of each rotational irrigation group.
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Figure 4. Correlation analysis results. (a) Relationship between average wall thickness and leakage point number on 2024/3/12. (b) Relationship between average wall thickness and leakage point number on 2024/6/29. (c) Relationship between leakage point number on 2024/6/29 and 2024/3/12. (d) The correlation between various variables. Note: “**” indicates strong correlation between variables.
Figure 4. Correlation analysis results. (a) Relationship between average wall thickness and leakage point number on 2024/3/12. (b) Relationship between average wall thickness and leakage point number on 2024/6/29. (c) Relationship between leakage point number on 2024/6/29 and 2024/3/12. (d) The correlation between various variables. Note: “**” indicates strong correlation between variables.
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Figure 5. Pests found near leakage points. (a) Mole cricket. (b) Wireworm.
Figure 5. Pests found near leakage points. (a) Mole cricket. (b) Wireworm.
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Figure 6. Typical pest-related leakage points in drip irrigation systems. (a) Pest-damaged tapes. (b) A leakage point.
Figure 6. Typical pest-related leakage points in drip irrigation systems. (a) Pest-damaged tapes. (b) A leakage point.
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Figure 7. Typical engineering-related leakage points in drip irrigation systems. (a) The loosed Q-flex pull ring. (b) The damaged Q-flex pipe.
Figure 7. Typical engineering-related leakage points in drip irrigation systems. (a) The loosed Q-flex pull ring. (b) The damaged Q-flex pipe.
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Figure 8. Scene of repairing drip tape in the field. (a) Manually tighten the connectors. (b) The repaired drip tape.
Figure 8. Scene of repairing drip tape in the field. (a) Manually tighten the connectors. (b) The repaired drip tape.
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Figure 9. Scene of repairing Q-flex pipe in the field. (a) Remove the damaged Q-flex pipe from the interface. (b) Connect the new Q-flex pipe to the interface.
Figure 9. Scene of repairing Q-flex pipe in the field. (a) Remove the damaged Q-flex pipe from the interface. (b) Connect the new Q-flex pipe to the interface.
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Figure 10. The number of leakage points recorded during each statistical assessment.
Figure 10. The number of leakage points recorded during each statistical assessment.
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Figure 11. The cumulative investment required for maintaining drip tapes with different wall thicknesses during service life.
Figure 11. The cumulative investment required for maintaining drip tapes with different wall thicknesses during service life.
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Table 1. Controlling area of each rotational irrigation group and types of drip tape.
Table 1. Controlling area of each rotational irrigation group and types of drip tape.
Treatment
Number		Irrigated Area (m3)Drip Tape Parameters of TYPPHOON PLUS Series
Diameter
(mm)		Wall Thickness
(mm)		Flow Rate
(L·h−1)
16733220.3801.0
28333160.2000.7
310,333160.2250.7
410,333160.2500.7
510,333160.2800.7
610,333160.3100.7
Table 2. The amount of leakage points for different damage reasons in each rotational irrigation group.
Table 2. The amount of leakage points for different damage reasons in each rotational irrigation group.
Damage ReasonsRotational Irrigation Group
123456
Insects510087433724
Rodents000001
Overstretched031001
Weak connection100010
Total amount710388433826
Table 3. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to investigate the effects of the wall thickness of drip tape on the number of water leakage points by insects.
Table 3. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to investigate the effects of the wall thickness of drip tape on the number of water leakage points by insects.
TimeSourceSum of SquaresdfMean SquareSignificant Level
12 MarchBetween groups3088.95617.8≤0.001
Within groups307.91225.7
Total3396.817
29 JuneBetween groups260.9552.2≤0.001
Within groups62.4125.2
Total323.417
Table 4. Types of insecticides and their purchase costs.
Table 4. Types of insecticides and their purchase costs.
Types of
Insecticides		Price
(USD)		Packaging QuantityUsage Quantity
(ha−1)		Price
(USD·ha−1)		Cost
(USD·ha−1)
40% phoxim1.8·Can−1500 mL·Can−13000 mL10.716.7
2.5% lambda-cyhalothrin0.56·Can−1500 mL·Can−12250 mL2.5
70% imidacloprid1.2·Bag−1100 g·Bag−1300 g3.5
Table 5. The number of leakage points for each treatment in September and November, along with the estimated annual leakage point count (/ha).
Table 5. The number of leakage points for each treatment in September and November, along with the estimated annual leakage point count (/ha).
TimeTreatment
123456
September3.220.516.610.97.04.4
November1.714.59.28.07.02.9
Average2.417.512.99.47.03.6
annual count12.087.564.747.235.018.0
Note: The number of leakage points in the drip irrigation system is surveyed and repaired at same time five times annually.
Table 6. The annual cost of maintenance and pesticide application for drip irrigation systems with different wall thicknesses (USD/ha).
Table 6. The annual cost of maintenance and pesticide application for drip irrigation systems with different wall thicknesses (USD/ha).
Type of CostType of Drip Tape
0.20 mm0.25 mm0.31 mm0.38 mm
Maintenance149.580.730.820.5
Pesticides83.583.583.583.5
Total annual232.8164.0114.1103.9
Table 7. The purchase cost of drip tapes with different wall thicknesses.
Table 7. The purchase cost of drip tapes with different wall thicknesses.
Drip Tape TypeWall Thickness
(mm)		Price
(USD·roll−1)		Length
(m·roll−1)		Cost
(USD·ha−1)
Thin-wall0.20150.025001002.0
0.25139.720001161.9
Thick-wall0.31139.116001459.0
0.38135.513001739.8
Note: In this experiment, the row spacing of the drip tape was 0.6 m, and the dosage per square meter of the field was about 1.67 m. The unit price per meter of the drip tape will be affected by fluctuations in market and raw material prices, and the final price is subject to the actual sales price.
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Zheng, Y.; Dang, H.; Hui, X.; Cai, D.; Zhang, H.; Xue, J.; Liu, X.; Ma, J.; Cao, C.; Niu, X.; et al. Research on Operation and Maintenance Management of Subsurface Drip Irrigation System in the North China Plain: A Case Study in the Heilonggang Region. Water 2025, 17, 508. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040508

AMA Style

Zheng Y, Dang H, Hui X, Cai D, Zhang H, Xue J, Liu X, Ma J, Cao C, Niu X, et al. Research on Operation and Maintenance Management of Subsurface Drip Irrigation System in the North China Plain: A Case Study in the Heilonggang Region. Water. 2025; 17(4):508. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040508

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zheng, Yudong, Hongkai Dang, Xin Hui, Dongyu Cai, Haohui Zhang, Jingyuan Xue, Xuetong Liu, Junyong Ma, Caiyun Cao, Xindong Niu, and et al. 2025. "Research on Operation and Maintenance Management of Subsurface Drip Irrigation System in the North China Plain: A Case Study in the Heilonggang Region" Water 17, no. 4: 508. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040508

APA Style

Zheng, Y., Dang, H., Hui, X., Cai, D., Zhang, H., Xue, J., Liu, X., Ma, J., Cao, C., Niu, X., Zheng, C., & Li, K. (2025). Research on Operation and Maintenance Management of Subsurface Drip Irrigation System in the North China Plain: A Case Study in the Heilonggang Region. Water, 17(4), 508. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040508

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