Olive Oil as a Tourist Attraction: An Analysis of Demand

Abstract

Olive oil is not only an essential culinary element in the diet of Mediterranean countries, but it is also becoming an increasingly attractive element from a tourism perspective. The olive grove landscape, ancient olive trees, and oil mills are increasingly attracting tourists eager to experience this type of tourism. This research analyzes the profile of the oleotourist in the four designations of the province of Córdoba (Spain). SARIMA models have been applied to predict oleotourism demand, resulting in a growing demand, which will create jobs in the towns dedicated to this cultivation. The main problem is the seasonality of this demand, which can be corrected by creating complementary activities such as olive oil festivals, cooking workshops, or tasting sessions. A logit model has also been developed to determine which variables influence the probability of being satisfied with the oleotourism experience, with environmental conservation and travel cost being the most influential. Regarding the bivariate analysis, motivation and satisfaction with the trip are closely related, as is the personal classification of the oleotourist; the more they know about the world of olive cultivation, the more satisfied they are with their experience.

1. Introduction

The cultivation of olive trees has been, since time immemorial [1,2,3], one of the fundamental pillars of the economy, culture, and landscape of the Mediterranean [4,5,6]. In Andalusia, one of Spain’s most emblematic regions, olive groves [7,8,9,10,11] not only shape the natural environment with their vast expanses of centuries-old trees, but also provide a livelihood for numerous families dedicated to olive oil production [12]. Within this region, the province of Córdoba holds a privileged position as one of the world’s leading olive oil-producing areas. According to the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food (MAPA) [13], Córdoba produced 142,436 tons during the 2023–24 season, representing 27.78% of Andalusia’s production, 18.58% of national production, and 6.08% of global production.

Olive oil, renowned for its quality and health benefits [14,15,16,17,18,19,20], is much more than a mere food product [21,22,23,24,25]. It is a symbol of Mediterranean cultural heritage, deeply embedded in the region’s culinary [26], social, and agricultural traditions. Throughout history, olive trees have been cultivated in these rugged landscapes, and over time, they have become a key element of Córdoba’s agricultural heritage and cultural landscape. The gentle topography of the olive groves, traditional cultivation techniques, and knowledge passed down through generations bestow olive cultivation with a cultural and ecological value that transcends its economic function.

In this context, oleotourism, or olive oil tourism [27,28,29,30,31,32,33], has emerged over the past two decades as a key alternative for revitalizing the rural economy and promoting sustainable and experiential tourism. This form of tourism offers visitors a deep immersion in olive culture, with activities ranging from visiting olive mills, where the oil is produced, to participating in the harvest and tasting different varieties of extra virgin olive oil. At the same time, oleotourism fosters local economic development by diversifying the income streams of small producers and creating new employment opportunities in areas such as gastronomy, hospitality, and artisanal commerce.

Beyond its economic impact, oleotourism plays a crucial role in preserving the rural landscape and conserving sustainable agricultural practices. Olive groves, especially in Córdoba, are a valuable environmental resource, contributing to soil erosion mitigation, combating desertification, and protecting biodiversity. By adopting ecological and biodynamic farming practices, many producers are committed to environmental conservation, enhancing the value of olive groves not only as an economic resource but also as an ecological and cultural asset.

The aim of this research is to analyze the importance of oleotourism in the province of Córdoba from a dual perspective: as a driver of sustainable economic development and as a tool for the conservation of the landscape and the traditions associated with olive cultivation. To this end, two econometric models will be used: a SARIMA model to predict the potential demand for oleotourism and a logit model to evaluate tourist satisfaction based on the personal characteristics of visitors, allowing for market segmentation and improvement of the tourism offering. These models will not only anticipate trends in tourist influx but also identify opportunities to enhance the tourism offerings and tailor products and services to meet consumer expectations.

One of the main findings of this study is that the demand for oleotourism is on the rise, which could create new employment opportunities in olive-growing communities. However, a significant challenge is the seasonality of this demand, which tends to peak at certain times of the year. To counteract this phenomenon, the creation of complementary activities is suggested to enrich the oleotourism experience, such as olive oil festivals, traditional cooking workshops using olive oil, and tasting sessions led by experts.

The logit model developed in this research also reveals that the most influential factors in the likelihood of tourist satisfaction are the preservation of the natural environment and the cost of the trip. This suggests that tourists value not only the quality of olive oil and related activities but also seek experiences in well-preserved landscapes at an affordable cost. Tourist motivation and their level of knowledge about olive cultivation are also key elements: Those already familiar with the world of olive groves tend to show higher levels of satisfaction with their tourism experience.

In this context, Córdoba, with its rich olive-growing tradition and vast expanses of olive groves, is positioned as an ideal destination for the development of oleotourism. Olive oil routes, which traverse the olive fields and allow visitors to discover the history and process behind olive oil production, offer a differentiated value proposition compared to more conventional forms of tourism. As interest in gastronomic tourism continues to grow globally, oleotourism has the potential to attract a diverse audience, ranging from food enthusiasts to travelers interested in sustainable and rural tourism.

Thus, this research on oleotourism in Córdoba not only provides valuable insights into tourist demand and the factors influencing visitor satisfaction but also encourages reflection on how this type of tourism can contribute to economic development, environmental sustainability, and the preservation of cultural heritage in rural areas. The olive grove landscape, beyond its productive function, becomes a tourism resource that allows visitors to connect with the region’s history and culture, while also offering an additional source of income for local communities. Oleotourism not only educates and entertains but also fosters economic development and sustainability in rural areas. Furthermore, it promotes the conscious and healthy consumption of olive oil as a fundamental component of the Mediterranean diet, strengthening the ties between cultural heritage and sustainable tourism in Córdoba.

With appropriate strategies for promoting and diversifying the tourism offering, oleotourism in Córdoba has the potential to continue growing and establish itself as a key component of the region’s sustainable development.

2. Literature Review

A review of the literature on oleotourism reveals its role as an economic and social driver in the regions where it is implemented [34,35], as well as its capacity to generate supplementary income for farmers with lower earnings [36,37,38]. At the same time, the rural context in which oleotourism develops has been the subject of several studies, analyzing aspects such as its impact on the local population and their quality of life [39], the role of local actors in its development [40], and its contribution to preserving olive landscapes and promoting rural development [10,41,42,43].

Moreover, several studies have focused on analyzing the characteristics of demand by examining the tourist profile in different geographic regions [44,45], delving into the different segments based on visitors’ motivations and experiences [11,46,47], as well as identifying key factors that motivate tourists to engage in oleotourism [48]. Other studies focus on analyzing the tourism supply [49]. Additionally, several works have explored the sustainable nature of oleotourism and its relationship with Protected Designations of Origin [43,50,51,52,53]. There are also studies that, while focused on demand, first describe the characteristics of the territory and then identify the profiles of tourists participating in this activity [54,55].

Although oleotourism is a relatively recent typology, compared to other segments such as sun and beach tourism, it has been established for over two decades. However, it has not yet reached its peak if analyzed through the tourism product life cycle theory [56], and it is currently in the expansion phase. Several definitions of the concept already exist, with the most comprehensive describing oleotourism as “a leisure or business trip that necessarily involves at least one overnight stay, motivated by activities related to olive oil and the culture, heritage, landscape, and customs of the local population that revolve around this product” [57].

As with other agricultural sectors, the interest in diversification towards oleotourism has primarily focused on supply characteristics and the use of available resources, as well as the demand profile [42]. Sharpley and Vass [58] pointed out the lack of attention given to the attitudes of agricultural business managers in previous studies, while Morris et al. [55] emphasized that tourism is one of the most stable sources of income for agricultural businesses in Wales.

With the emergence of oleotourism [59,60,61], agricultural businesses that choose to diversify into this sector face challenges and uncertainties related to tourism. Although economic motivation is often key, detailed planning that also considers social and environmental factors is essential, as Dernoi [62] already anticipated in relation to the diversification of European agricultural businesses into tourism.

The integration of new business lines must be accompanied by the adoption of corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices, although this topic has received limited attention in the tourism literature, which has mainly focused on economic aspects [63]. However, a comprehensive approach to CSR can contribute to the sustainability of tourism destinations, as previous studies have pointed out [64]. Fernández and Cuadrado [65] highlight the strategic value of CSR for achieving competitive advantages and link its implementation to sustainable development, considering the economic, social, and environmental dimensions [66].

Lastly, new technologies, such as artificial intelligence, have opened up opportunities for rural businesses, facilitating the dissemination of their products online. Early research already highlighted how the internet could revolutionize the economic landscape in industrial regions of Catalonia [67], a parallel applicable to the olive sector. The use of these tools has reduced the need for intermediaries in tourism, allowing businesses to manage their offerings directly. Furthermore, technology has become a key strategy for reaching new demand segments, especially in rural areas where its adoption has been gradual, gaining prominence with generational shifts in businesses [68,69].

3. Materials and Methods

The research conducted in this study focuses on an econometric analysis with the following objectives:

• To estimate the quantitative demand for olive oil tourism in the four denominations of origin in Córdoba (Baena, Montoro-Adamuz, Priego de Córdoba, and Lucena).
• To understand the profile of the oleotourism consumer who participates in these routes and, consequently, to implement necessary measures to enhance this tourist route, thereby increasing wealth in this geographical area. This methodology has been previously used for the study of gastronomic tourism, such as wine tourism in Alicante [70] and Iberian ham tourism [71,72].

The information sources used for this study were as follows:

➢

Data provided by the oil mills of the PDOs in Córdoba on the number of visits they received from January 2015 to March 2024 (Supplementary Materials).

➢

Data obtained through fieldwork based on a demand-focused survey conducted from October 2023 to June 2024. The survey targeted individuals who participated in an oleotourism route in Córdoba, motivated by a desire to learn about the olive oil production process, see ancient olive trees, visit olive museums, or enjoy the olive landscape. The survey aimed to analyze the socio-economic profile of oleotourists, their travel motivations, and their evaluations and opinions of the route. The objective was to understand the profile of the client engaging in this type of tourism and to determine the motivations behind their participation, with the purpose of designing strategies to promote the development of olive oil tourism in the area.

With the data obtained, the following analyses were conducted:

• Univariate and Bivariate Analysis:
  • Univariate Analysis: Frequency analysis was performed to understand the distribution of individual variables.
  • Bivariate Analysis: Cross-tabulation of variables was conducted to identify independence or association between two variables using contingency tables and the chi-square statistic.
• Binary Choice Logit Model: The dependent variable (Satisfaction with the oleotourism route) is a dichotomous qualitative variable assigned two values: 1 (satisfied with the route) and 0 (not satisfied with the route). The model aims to determine the probability of tourist satisfaction based on their expectations of the route and their socio-economic profile [73].
  The main predetermined variables used in this survey include:
  • Gender of the respondent.
  • Age (over 18 years).
  • Employment situation: Divided into five dichotomous variables—salaried employee (se), self-employed (self), retired (r), unemployed (u), with student (s) as the reference variable.
  • Household income (thousands of euros/month): rf.
  • Travel companions: Divided into four dichotomous variables—alone (a), accompanied by partner (ap), friends (f), with relatives (wr) as the reference variable.
  • Number of visits to the olive-growing area of Córdoba province: nv.
  • Expenses incurred during the vacation: gr.
  • Would recommend the area as a tourist destination: re, a dichotomous variable (1 for yes and 0 for no).
  • Days spent on this type of tourism: dv.
  • Number of oil mills visited: na.
  • Opinion on accommodation: oalo, a dichotomous variable (1 for good and 0 for bad).
  • Opinion on catering: a dichotomous variable (1 for good and 0 for bad).
  • Complementary activities: acco, categorized as 0 (bad), 1 (average), and 2 (good).
  • Travel cost: pr, categorized as 0 (expensive), 1 (average), and 2 (cheap).
  • Hospitality: h, categorized as 0 (bad), 1 (average), and 2 (good).
  • Conservation of the environment: ce, categorized as 0 (bad), 1 (average), and 2 (good).
  • Accommodation: al, categorized as 0 (bad), 1 (average), and 2 (good).
  • Opinion on route information and signage: is, categorized as 0 (bad), 1 (average), and 2 (good).
  • Self-classification regarding olive oil: Divided into four dichotomous variables—oil connoisseur (oc), oil enthusiast (oe), interested in oil (io), with oil novice (on) as the reference variable.
• SARIMA Model: A SARIMA model was used to predict oleotourism demand in the PDOs of Córdoba province based on data from January 2015 to May 2024, following the Box–Jenkins (BJ) methodology (using ARIMA models). According to Box et al. [74], the facilitating factor of this prediction method lies in analyzing the probabilistic, or stochastic, properties of the economic time series themselves (in this case, the number of oleotourism visits in PDOs of Córdoba).

The analysis aims to provide insights into the factors influencing tourist satisfaction with oleotourism routes and to forecast future demand, thereby helping to develop strategies to enhance oleotourism and promote economic growth in the region.

4. Results and Discussion

The olive oil sector is adapting to the new tourism typology known as oleotourism [75,76]. Agricultural enterprises that decide to diversify into this field face a series of challenges and uncertainties strongly linked to tourism activity [77]. The economic aspect is the primary reason for this diversification, but detailed planning is necessary, including environmental and social aspects, and understanding the potential profile of this type of tourism to adapt the necessary measures to offer an experience that meets the tastes and needs of the demand. This need forms the basis of this study.

This research was conducted with a sample of 470 people who visited oil mills belonging to the DOPs of olive oil in Córdoba province between October 2023 and May 2024. Before the fieldwork, a pre-test of 35 surveys was conducted to detect potential deviations and errors. A total of 470 valid surveys were obtained (

Table 1. Technical aspects of the demand survey.

Population	Tourists of Both Sexes over the Age Who Performed/Visited an Olive Oil/PDO/Route
Sample size	470
Sampling System	Simple Random
Margin of error	±4.7%
Confidence level	95%; p = q = 0.5
Date of fieldwork	October 2023–May 2024

). Consent was obtained from the facility owners before the survey. The selected oil mills met criteria similar to those in Čehić et al.s study [78]: (1) They were open to visitors during data collection. (2) They had a tasting area. (3) They had a shop within the estate offering a full line of products, including various sizes of bottled olive oil and displaying international quality awards.

4.1. Univariate Descriptive Analysis

The demand for oleotourism in Córdoba is characterized by cyclical seasonality, with peaks from October to December. These months coincide with the olive harvest season and several holidays, including All Saints’ Day (November 1), Spanish Constitution Day (December 6), Immaculate Conception (December 8), and Christmas. During these periods, hotel occupancy rates reach up to 82%. Since the pandemic, tourists have increasingly sought trips that avoid overcrowding and offer contact with nature, as noted by various authors [79,80].

When analyzing the profile of the oleotourist in Córdoba province, based on the survey sample (

Table 2. Personal characteristics of the oleotourist.

Question	Classification	Percentage
Age	18–29 years old	20.1
	30–39 years old	27.5
	40–49 years old	10.2
	50–59 years old	30.4
	Over 60 years old	11.8
Level of studies	No completed studies	16.7
	Primary and secondary education	21.4
	Secondary/VET studies	32.6
	Higher education	29.3
Gender	Man	57.4
	Woman	42.6
Marital status	Single	27.6
	Married	47.6
	Divorced/separated	24.7
	Other	0.1
Income level of the family unit	Less than 1000 euros	21.2
	1001–1500 euros	19.8
	1501–2000 euros	30.3
	2001–2500 euros	18.6
	+2500 euros	10.1
Who are you doing the tour with?	Alone	1.2
	Accompanied by my partner	50.1
	With friends	39.4
	With relatives	9.3
Where are you from?	Andalusia	60.0
	Rest of Spain (except Andalusia)	30.0
	European Union (except Spain)	9.5
	United States	0.1
	Rest of the world (except United States)	0.4
Employment situation	Salaried employee	50.1
	Self-Employed	19.9
	Retired	17.4
	Unemployed	10.1
	Student	2.5
Duration of trip	Less than 24 h	55.6
	1–3 days	36.3
	More than 3 days	8.1
Daily spend	Less than 30 euros	17.1
	30–65 euros	19.6
	66–100 euros	38.2
	More than 100 euros	25.1

), the typical profile is a man (57.4%), aged between 50 and 59 (30.4%), with secondary or high school education (32.6%), an average income between 1501 and 2000 euros (30.3%), employed (50.1%), married (47.6%), traveling with a partner (50.1%), and mainly from Andalusia (60%). This profile shows significant differences in income levels compared to other gastronomic tourists [29,81] (e.g., enotourists, Iberian ham tourists, pastry tourists), with oleotourists having lower purchasing power (Kruskal–Wallis: Sig. asintót. = 0.008). For instance, 32% of enotourists have a monthly income above 2500 euros, while only 10.1% of oleotourists visiting Córdoba reach that income level.

Comparing with similar studies, such as that by Čehić et al. in Croatia [78], significant differences are observed. In Croatia, women predominantly engage in this type of tourism (58.6%), and 94% of tourists do not reside in the region, staying 5–7 days (32.9%). In contrast, 60% of oleotourists in Córdoba are from the region and stay less than 24 h (55.6%). Comparing with the study by Orgaz et al. [82] on oleotourists in Córdoba and Jaén, differences include a higher percentage of women (56.9%) and individuals with higher education (56.9%) in their study. Additionally, 40.4% of their oleotourists were retirees, compared to 17.4% in our study. This difference may be due to the timing of the research; Orgaz et al.’s study was conducted before the pandemic, whereas ours is post-pandemic and aligns with studies by Dancausa et al. [11] on the post-pandemic oleotourist profile in Andalusia.

Our findings are consistent with other studies conducted during the pandemic. Murgado-Armenteros et al. [83] emphasize that tourists, especially olive oil tourists, sought more security and comfort during the pandemic. Correia et al. [84] note that the meaning of comfort and relaxation for olive oil tourists changed with the pandemic. Pop et al. [85] found that the pandemic altered tourist behavior, especially among young people, who leaned towards adventure. Baltacı and Kurar [86] revealed that push and pull motivations for tourist activities changed, with a greater emphasis on seeking experiences. To sustain this positive trend in olive oil tourism, it is necessary to manage the destination’s image well and focus on activities that attract olive oil tourists to the region.

Our results also show similarities with the study by Duarte & Northcote [87] in Australia regarding travel companions, where few tourists travel alone. In Córdoba, only 1.2% travel alone. However, differences exist concerning the age and education of gastronomic tourists. Studies by Park [88], Robinson et al. [89], McKercher et al. [90], and Ignatov and Smith [91] indicate that the segment of tourists for whom gastronomy is a significant component in destination choice typically includes those around 45 years old with a high level of education.

Regarding the set of questions about the visit (

Table 3. Questions about the visit.

Question	Classification	Percentage
Number of people who have accompanied you on the tour.	1 person	10.0
	2 to 4 people	67.4
	More than 4 people	22.6
Has the PDO or the culinary tour met your expectations?	Yes	89.1
	No	10.9
What do you think could be done to improve the tour?	No answer	0.4
	Signage	59.6
	Explanation of the tour or PDO	33.2
	More audiovisual media	9.2
	Other	0.6
Would you be interested in receiving more information after the visit?	Yes, if it is free	60.1
	Yes, in any case	29.9
	I do not consider it necessary	10.0
Did you come here specifically to do the culinary tour or was it offered to you when you were already in Andalusia?	I specifically came here to do the tour	59.9
	It was offered to me by chance	39.9
Does the price paid for the tour seem good value for money?	Yes	99.2
	No	0.8
How did you find out about the tour?	Travel agency	17.4
	Online, through social networks	26.3
	On the recommendation of friends and family	34.2
	Other media	22.1
I would repeat this experience with a similar tour.	Yes	99.7
	No	0.3
Degree of satisfaction with the visit.	Less than 25%	0.1
	25–50%	0.3
	51–75%	4.2
	76–99%	58.3
	100%	37.1

), 99.2% of respondents consider that there is a good relationship between the price paid and the quality of service received throughout the route. Additionally, 34.2% mentioned that they chose to take the route based on recommendations from friends and family who had previously experienced it. Moreover, 99.7% expressed willingness to repeat the experience, as this type of tourism is specific to certain cultivation areas.

The study results indicate that olive oil tourists prefer destinations they are familiar with or have information about, often through recommendations from friends or family. The existence of local products with geographical indications, the planning of activities that facilitate interaction between producers and tourists, the creation of product sales points, and the diversity of traditional products are important factors influencing oleotourists’ motivations. These findings align with the studies by Pulido-Fernández et al. [47] and Murgado-Armenteros et al. [83].

Key Factors Influencing Oleotourism

• Price–Quality Relationship: An overwhelming majority (99.2%) of tourists believe that the price they paid was justified by the quality of service they received, indicating a high level of satisfaction. Recommendations: Personal recommendations play a significant role in attracting tourists, with 34.2% choosing the route based on advice from friends or family who had already experienced it.
• Return Visits: A remarkable 99.7% of tourists expressed their intention to revisit, highlighting the strong appeal and positive experience associated with oleotourism.
• Local Products with Geographical Indications: The presence of local products with recognized quality and geographical indications helps attract tourists by emphasizing the authenticity and uniqueness of the experience.
• Interaction with Producers: Activities that enable direct interaction between tourists and producers enhance the tourism experience, making it more engaging and educational.
• Sales Points for Local Products: The availability of points where tourists can purchase local products enhances the overall experience, allowing them to take home a piece of their visit.
• Diversity of Traditional Products: Offering a wide variety of traditional products enriches the tourist experience and caters to diverse preferences, increasing the attractiveness of the destination.

These factors can be leveraged to enhance the appeal of oleotourism destinations and attract more visitors. The insights from this study suggest that carefully planning and promoting these aspects can significantly boost tourist satisfaction and increase the popularity of oleotourism.

Few studies have investigated the motivation of oleotourists; most have been published by Spanish academics, as Spain is one of the countries where oleotourism, although not fully exploited [92], is starting to be recognized as a new tourism product [93,94,95]. According to our research, 50.1% of oleotourists’ primary motivation when taking the route is to learn about the olive oil production process and visit oil mills (this interest highlights the educational aspect of oleotourism), while 40.9% are motivated by the desire to explore local gastronomy (

Table 4. Questions about the motivation for the visit.

Question	Classification	Percentage
What is your main motivation for the visit?	Finding out about the culinary tradition of the place	40.8
	Learning about the oil production process, visiting oil mills	50.1
	Attending food festivals	9.9
How do you assess the current situation in terms of tourism management of places like the ones you have visited?	Good	42.6
	Regular	38.3
	Bad	19.1
What do you think about the creation of a combined tour of various gastronomic products with theatrical representation?	I agree	99.1
	I do not agree, I prefer to do a single culinary tour rather than several	0.9

). These findings align with studies by Barreal & Jannes in Spain [96] and Menor et al. [97] in World Heritage Cities, where the main motivation for gastronomic travel is understanding production processes.

The survey responses also align with the results obtained by Moral et al. [45]. These authors suggest that oleotourist motivation can be viewed from two perspectives: experiencing a “gastronomic adventure” and engaging in “unusual activities” related to the cultural and natural heritage of the destination, such as olive harvesting. Notably, 95.4% of surveyed oleotourists reported a satisfaction level exceeding 76% with their experience in the olive world. This high satisfaction underscores the successful integration of educational and experiential elements in oleotourism. These findings are similar to those of Campon et al. [60], who indicate that olive oil tourists not only seek enjoyment when traveling but also derive pleasure from the travel experience itself.

In

Table 5. Questions about oil usage and knowledge of the oil world.

Question	Classification	Percentage
How often do you use olive oil in the preparation of your meals?	Every day	45.6
	Several times a week	38.2
	Once a fortnight	0.6
	Sometimes in the month	15.2
	Never	0.4
What type of oil do you use in your meals?	Extra Virgin olive oil	38.1
	Virgin olive oil	54.6
	Olive oil	4.4
	Orujo oil	2.8
	No type of oil	0.7
How would you personally classify yourself in relation to olive oil?	Oil connoisseur	0.5
	Oil enthusiast	19.6
	Interested in oil	67.1
	Oil novice	12.1

, we observe the knowledge and opinions of tourists regarding olive oil. Notably, 45.6% of tourists use olive oil in their cooking, which is a high percentage due to the majority of oleotourists being from the Andalusian region, the leading olive oil-producing region globally. Olive oil is deeply ingrained in the local culinary culture. The most commonly used oil is virgin olive oil (54.6%), as it is slightly cheaper than extra virgin olive oil.

Regarding how tourists classify themselves in terms of their knowledge of the olive oil world, we follow the classification by Dancausa et al. [11]. This classification divides tourists into four groups:

➢

Oil Connoisseur: Individuals with extensive education in olive oil topics, whose primary motivation for travel is to taste different types of olive oil, purchase bottles, and learn on-site.

➢

Oil Enthusiast: Individuals who, although not extensively educated in olive oil topics, have a relatively good understanding of the olive oil world. They often have a university education, and their primary motivation for travel is to put into practice what they have read in various specialized magazines.

➢

Interested in Oil: Individuals without technical training in olive oil topics but who are interested in the field.

➢

Oil Novice: Individuals who, for various reasons (such as the publicity of a route or the desire to have new experiences), visit an oil mill without any knowledge in this area. Their primary motivation for the trip is entirely different, but they accept, secondarily, to spend a few hours visiting oil mills.

According to our findings, 67.1% of tourists consider themselves interested in olive oil. They commonly consume virgin olive oil (54.6%) and use it daily in their meals (45.6%).

4.2. Bivariate Descriptive Analysis

Relationships between various variables, such as gender, age, income level, and satisfaction level, were established. The hypotheses were as follows:

• H₀: The analyzed variables are independent.
• H₁: The analyzed variables are related.

Table 6. Bivariate Analysis.

Variable Relationship	Χ2	Degrees of Freedom	* Prob.	Hypothesis Accepted
Gender–Satisfaction	7.10	4	0.1306	H0
Age–Satisfaction	233.17	12	<0.0001	H1
Income Level–Satisfaction	339.44	12	<0.0001	H1
Income Level–Personal Classification	637.96	12	<0.0001	H1
Motivation–Satisfaction	39.16	6	<0.0001	H1
Educational Level–Satisfaction	285.20	16	<0.0001	H1
Olive Oil Knowledge–Olive Oil Use	468.23	12	<0.0001	H1
Olive Oil Knowledge–Satisfaction	176.88	9	<0.0001	H1
Types of Olive Oil Used–Satisfaction	39.16	16	<0.0010	H1

* Prob. < α = 0.05.

presents the results of the bivariate analysis, showing that satisfaction with the olive oil tourism experience is not related to gender (χ2 = 7.10, Prob = 0.1306). This differs from the studies of Cava et al. [48] and Mazon et al. [98], which found that women were more satisfied than men with this type of tourism. For example, in the study on gastronomic tourism in Benidorm, women’s satisfaction levels were higher (75%) compared to men’s (64%).

Age is related to satisfaction (χ2 = 234.17, Prob = 0). Younger tourists are more satisfied than older ones, which differs from Pulido et al.‘s findings [70], as younger individuals, having lived in cities, are more attracted to traditional oil production methods and old oil mills.

Income level influences satisfaction (χ2 = 339.44, Prob = 0). Higher-income individuals are more satisfied with their visit because their knowledge or personal classification of the olive oil world is higher (χ2 = 637.96, Prob = 0).

Motivation for the trip is related to satisfaction. Individuals motivated by learning about olive oil culture are more satisfied than those whose primary motivation is gastronomy. In general, gastronomic tourism studies (not specific to oleotourism) indicate that tourists more knowledgeable about the destination’s gastronomy achieve higher satisfaction levels than those for whom gastronomy is a secondary motivation.

Educational level is related to satisfaction (χ2 = 285.20, Prob = 0), as is the classification of knowledge about the olive oil world (χ2 = 176.88, Prob = 0). Experts are more satisfied because they plan the route and know what oil mills they expect to visit and the types of oils produced. In contrast, “Oil Novices” who visit mills by chance are less satisfied, sometimes comparing them to wineries, and not all visitors enjoy olive oil tasting.

4.3. Logit Model Results

The logit model aimed to determine the probability of an oleotourist being satisfied or not with the oleotourism route based on their personal characteristics. This binary choice model is similar to the study conducted by Cava et al. [48]. The estimation results are shown in

Table 7. Logit model estimation.

Satisf = 1/(1 + e−(β0+β1 gender+β2 age+β3 se+β4 self+β5u+β6 r+β7 a+β8 ap+β9f+β10 gr+β11 rf+β12re+β13dv+β14 b+β15 catering+β17 is+β18 oalo+β19 acco+β20 price+β21 hospitality+β22 ce+β23 oc+β24 oe+β25 io) + ε
Dependent Variable: Satisf
Method: ML—Binary Logit (Quadratic Hill Climbing)
Variable	Estimated Coefficient	Standard Deviation	Z	Prob
Intercept	B0 = 1.356	0.203	6.679	0.0000
Gender	B1 = −0.632	0.012	52.666	0.0000
Age	B2 = −1.264	0.641	−1.972	0.0486
Salaried employee, se	B3 = 9.256	3.246	2.851	0.0043
Self-employed, self	B4 = −1.562	0.021	74.381	0.0000
unemployed, u	B5 = 0.035	0.002	17.500	0.0000
Retired, r	B6 = 1.364	0.638	2.137	0.0325
Traveling alone, a	B7 = 7.623	1.345	5.667	0.0000
Traveling as a couple, ap	B8 = 10.584	2.356	4.492	0.0000
Traveling with friends, f	B9 = −0.058	0.001	−58.000	0.0000
Expenditures, gr	B10 = 4.566	2.131	2.142	0.3219
Family income, rf	B11 = 8.765	1.489	5.884	0.0000
Would recommend trip, re	B12 = 12.346	3.687	3.348	0.0008
Vacation days, dv	B13 = −0.467	0.265	−1.762	0.0781
Oil mills visited, b	B14 = 9.328	3.234	2.884	0.0039
Catering	B16 = 4.328	0.789	5.485	0.0000
Information and signage, is	B17 = 6.745	1.968	3.427	0.0006
Lodging opinion, oalo	B18 = 2.561	1.163	2.202	0.2766
Complementary activities, acco	B19 = 1.568	0.245	−6.400	0.0000
Trip price, price	B20 = 14.572	2.356	6.185	0.0000
Hospitality	B21 = 0.045	0.001	45.000	0.0000
Environmental conservation, ce	B22 = 17.568	4.584	3.832	0.0001
Oil connoisseur, oc	B23 = 5.536	0.023	240.695	0.0000
Oil enthusiast, oe	B24 = 4.983	2.341	−2.128	0.0002
Interested in oil, io	B25 = 1.253	0.034	36.852	0.3333

R² McFadden = 0.58. All parameters are significant, α = 0.05, except B₁₀ and B_13. Source: Own elaboration.

:

From this estimation, we can derive the following results:

• The variable number of oil mills visited (b) positively influences the probability of being satisfied with the trip. As the number of oil mills visited increases, satisfaction also increases (B₁₄ = 9.328).
• The variable age is significant but has a negative coefficient. As the tourist’s age increases, their satisfaction level decreases (B₂ = −1.264). This is consistent with the results obtained in the bivariate analysis.
• Regarding negative variables highlighted by surveyed travelers, the duration of the trip (B₁₃ = −0.467) shows that as the time spent in the area increases, the probability of satisfaction decreases. This is due, according to the respondents, to the lack of complementary leisure activities (B₁₉ = 1.568). Given that oleotourism occurs in rural areas, coordinated routes with other gastronomic or nature and sports activities, such as hiking and rural tourism, should be created.
• Opinions on the trip regarding catering, hospitality, environmental conservation (ce), complementary activities (acco), lodging (oalo), and trip price all have positive coefficients, with the highest being environmental conservation (B₂₂ = 17.568). For oleotourists, it is crucial that the olive landscapes and ancient olive trees are well preserved. The second most influential variable on the probability of being satisfied with the trip is the price (B₂₀ = 14.572). As the price increases, so does satisfaction, because tourists stay in better hotels, dine in good restaurants, and visit several oil mills. This profile typically aligns with the Oil Connoisseur (B₂₃ = 5.536), who plans the trip, knows what they want to visit, and whose expectations match their experience.

The growing importance of olive oil tourism is undeniable. The need to develop sustainable tourism models in new areas traditionally dedicated to other economic activities necessitates understanding exactly what and how tourists want to consume at each specific destination. The main findings of our research are as follows:

The number of oil mills open to the public in Córdoba is still limited, especially during weekends and holidays. This implies that the oleotourism offering in the area does not adequately meet the current (and potential) demand and, therefore, this demand could be diverted to other olive oil production destinations or other products like wine. It is crucial to clearly position this tourist destination to create a distinct brand image for the route, avoiding diversions to other similar destinations [99,100].

The demand for oleotourism in the area is growing, according to the surveyed business owners (Figure 1). There is a high probability that tourists will repeat the experience, achieving a high degree of loyalty. This suggests that there is a minimum demand for different companies (especially existing cooperatives) to invest in this area to satisfy this tourist segment.

According to the study by Dancausa et al. [11], the pandemic has not changed the profile of the oleotourism consumer. However, conversations with oil mill managers indicated that they have observed a change in tourist behavior. Oleotourists are now more concerned with sustainability and hygiene.

4.4. SARIMA Model for Demand Estimation

Studies on the evolution of inland tourism indicate that, after the pandemic, tourists have sought contact with nature and destinations close to their residences. This means that the olive-growing regions can be attractive tourist destinations. However, the major challenge is that oil mills and olive landscapes, being in rural areas, lack the necessary infrastructure to meet oleotourists’ needs, such as hotels of a certain category, restaurants, leisure activities related to olive growing, etc. To meet all these expectations, investments in oil mills, the creation of olive museums, the establishment of trails to visit ancient olive trees, oil routes, etc., are necessary. Therefore, it is essential to understand the evolution of oleotourist demand to determine whether investment in this tourism segment will be profitable.

There are few studies on the demand forecast for oleotourism, highlighting the importance of this study. Monthly information from January 2015 to March 2024 (Figure 2) on the number of oleotourists received by oil mills open to the public in Córdoba Province was obtained. To model the variable number of oleotourists, the Box–Jenkins methodology was used to design a seasonal ARIMA model, where a variable is studied based on its past values.

Φ(B) ϕ(B) (1 − B)^d (1 − B^S)^D Y^(λt = ϴ(B) θ(B) a_t

The variable demand for oleotourism in Córdoba Province, named Oleotourist in the model, shows variance trends, which were corrected with the Box–Cox transformation λ = 0.3 (Oleoturist^(0.3), and trends in mean and cycle, corrected with differentiation in mean and cycle. The estimated monthly demand forecast model for oleotourists in Andalusia (

Table 8. Estimation of the demand of oleotourism in Andalusia.

Dependent Variable: D(OLEOTURIST0.3,1,12)
Method: Least Squares
Variable	Coefficient	Std. Error	t-Statistic	Prob.
SMA(12)	−0.929134	0.026317	−35.30589	0.0000

) is a SARIMA (0,1,0) (0,1,1)¹²

(1 − B¹) (1 − B¹²)¹ Oleotourist^0.3 = (1 + 0.929134 B¹²) at

t_Θ1 = −35.30589 . Significant coefficient

The results of the Dickey–Fuller test in

Table 9. Unit root test.

Exogenous: Constant
Lag Length: 12 (Automatic—Based on SIC, maxlag = 12)
			t-Statistic	Prob.
Augmented Dickey–Fuller test statistic			−0.982418	0.7577
Test critical values:	1% level		−3.490210
	5% level		−2.887665
	10% level		−2.580778

show that the probability 0.7577 > α = 0.05 supports the null hypothesis (H₀) that the oleotourist variable has a unit root.

The results of the ARCH test in

Table 10. Heteroskedasticity test: ARCH.

Heteroskedasticity Test: ARCH
F-statistic	0.000997	Prob. F(1108)	0.9749
Obs * R-squared	0.001016	Prob. Chi-Square(1)	0.9746

* Absence of autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity.

show that the probability Chi-Square (0.9746 > α = 0.05) supports the null hypothesis (H0) of the absence of autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity.

Using this model, monthly predictions for 2024 were made, and the results are shown in

Table 11. Forecast for rural tourism demand in Andalusia for 2024 (persons).

	Year 2023	Year 2024
January	5624.00	6728.00
February	5856.00	6150.00
March	4936.00	5924.00
April	4728.00	4823.00
May	5562.00	5645.00
June	4321.00	4732.00
July	7240.00	7325.00
August	8236.00	7935.00
September	8958.00	9056.00
October	9765.00	10,235.00
November	11,236.00	11,324.00
December	11,924.00	12,068.00
TOTAL	88,386.00	91,945.00

. It can be deduced that the trend of oleotourism is increasing (4.02%) compared to 2023, with an increase of 3559 people engaging in this type of tourism. This indicates that oleotourism is attractive to potential tourists, although it shows marked seasonality in October, November, and December, coinciding with the olive harvesting and processing season. During this period, oleotourism becomes more attractive as tourists can witness the production process at its peak, with oil mills operating at full capacity.

Implementing appropriate strategies in this tourism segment could help de-seasonalize demand. Throughout the year, tourists could visit oil mills, olive museums, interpretation centers, and olive landscapes, creating stable employment in rural areas and preventing the depopulation of many inland villages.

5. Conclusions

Oleotourism, an activity related to the world of olive growing (its landscapes, the production process of olive oil, known as “green gold”), is on the rise. After the COVID-19 pandemic, Spanish tourists changed their vacation habits from crowded areas (especially beaches) to inland areas, benefiting rural regions of Andalusia. Although the profile of the oleotourist (age, gender, education level, etc.) has not changed before and after the pandemic [11], their motivations have shifted. They now desire to be in contact with nature and learn about the production process of this culinary element.

A descriptive analysis was conducted to understand the profile of the oleotourist, who is predominantly male, with secondary education, married, and with a medium income level of 1501 to 2000 euros, visiting the area to learn about the olive oil production process.

Regarding demand trends, the results of the SARIMA model show that oleotourism in Córdoba province has a growing trend (3559 more oleotourists than in 2023), indicating that it is becoming an attractive tourism offer. Experiencing an authentic visit to the territory and learning about local customs and practices promoting sustainable development of the area are increasingly attractive reasons for oleotourists. Local oil mills and businesses are integrating into oleotourism routes (mainly restaurants, shops, and rural accommodations) while promoting and preserving the natural environment respectfully, similar to studies by Dàuria et al. [92] in Croatia, Italy, and Spain. There is also significant involvement of residents in this new tourism offer [101,102].

From our study (logit model), we conclude that the probability of being satisfied with the oleotourism experience is high, and gender influences the probability of satisfaction. Men are less satisfied than women (negative coefficient of the logit model (B₁ = −0.632)), and the variable that most influences satisfaction probability is environmental conservation (B₂₂ = 17.568). Analyzing tourist behavior, Córdoba and its olive groves are an ideal context for promoting initiatives related to oleotourism, as seen in studies by Campon et al. [103]. This is supported by primary data collected from a sample of British tourists, which showed interest in Spain, olive oil, and activities related to oleotourism in the Extremadura region. These results can be extrapolated to Córdoba province to increase foreign oleotourists, as 60% of Córdoba’s oleotourists are from the Andalusia region and stay for less than 24 h. With appropriate marketing campaigns promoting olive oil tourism as gastronomic and health tourism in international markets and offering complementary activities, both foreign and national tourists could be attracted, leading to longer stays and higher daily spending, creating wealth in Córdoba province.

Our findings can help local governments and businesses associated with the olive oil chain adapt marketing strategies for the destination. Differentiating between highly and less involved tourist segments also helps identify the most relevant factors guiding public-private partnerships to protect and promote the destination.

While different organizations and institutions in the olive oil industry promote their own products, it is recommended that the industry cooperate to communicate the benefits of visiting the olive-growing region to the general public. Creating a common brand and conducting different marketing campaigns tailored to target markets is essential. The collaboration of all stakeholders, including oil producers, tourism businesses, public agencies, etc., can ensure that oleotourism becomes a strong segment in Córdoba province and helps de-seasonalize demand. Compared to other oleotourism destinations, this tourism segment has room for development and should diversify with new tourism products. Collaborations, support, incentives, marketing efforts, and contributions from producers and the local community, along with a sustainable tourism approach, have the potential to transform the region into a strong destination for oleotourism, as seen in the Olive Corridor of South Marmara (Türkiye) [104].

Oleotourism in Córdoba is characterized by a strong educational component, with tourists highly motivated by the desire to learn about olive oil production and experience local gastronomy. The high levels of satisfaction reported by oleotourists suggest that the current offerings meet or exceed their expectations. These insights can help guide the development and promotion of oleotourism, ensuring it continues to grow as a valuable tourism segment in Spain.

Therefore, olive oil and gastronomic tourism form a powerful alliance that enriches both visitors and local communities [102]. Through immersive, educational, and sensory experiences, tourists can discover the cultural and gastronomic richness of olive oil, while producing regions benefit economically and advance in sustainability. This holistic approach to tourism not only celebrates the culinary value of olive oil but also highlights its role in the cultural identity and socio-economic development of Mediterranean regions, allowing Córdoba province to showcase its gastronomic heritage (olive oil and dishes made with it), cultural traditions (use and tradition of olive oil), and industrial heritage (oil mills), thus preserving this tourism activity for future generations.