Land

24 pages, 2291 KB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Transformation in Rural Hungary: Infrastructure, Skills and Uptake Across Regions

by Dániel Fróna and Dorina Fróna-Hadas

Land 2025, 14(10), 2034; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102034 (registering DOI) - 12 Oct 2025

Rural digitalization in Hungary from 2010 to 2024 is examined, focusing on infrastructure, digital skills, and sectoral uptake. Using secondary data, an interrupted time-series model determines national household internet access, and a regional panel includes post-2020 slope terms. Nationally, uptake continued and accelerated [...] Read more.

Rural digitalization in Hungary from 2010 to 2024 is examined, focusing on infrastructure, digital skills, and sectoral uptake. Using secondary data, an interrupted time-series model determines national household internet access, and a regional panel includes post-2020 slope terms. Nationally, uptake continued and accelerated after 2020, while regional trajectories remained broadly parallel, indicating persistent yet narrowing territorial differences. Market indicators point to a capacity-heavy fixed network with county-level disparities, suggesting that affordability and competencies shape the remaining rural gaps. There is a need for place-based policies that jointly target last-mile infrastructure, affordability, and skills to convert access into practical use in rural economies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Contexts and Urban-Rural Interactions)

15 pages, 4945 KB

Open AccessArticle

Divergent Urban Canopy Heat Island Responses to Heatwave Type over the Tibetan Plateau: A Case Study of Xining

by Guoxin Chen, Xiaofan Lu, Qiong Li, Siqi Zhang and Suonam Kealdrup Tysa

Land 2025, 14(10), 2033; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102033 (registering DOI) - 12 Oct 2025

Abstract

The escalating heatwave risks over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) highlight unresolved gaps in understanding multitype mechanisms and diurnal urban canopy heat island (UCHI) responses. Using Xining’s high-density observational network (2018–2023) and by employing comparative analysis (urban–rural, heatwave versus non-heatwave days) and composite analysis, [...] Read more.

The escalating heatwave risks over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) highlight unresolved gaps in understanding multitype mechanisms and diurnal urban canopy heat island (UCHI) responses. Using Xining’s high-density observational network (2018–2023) and by employing comparative analysis (urban–rural, heatwave versus non-heatwave days) and composite analysis, we found: During the record-breaking July 2022 heatwave across the TP, Xining reached an extreme UCHI peak (z-score: 3.0). Critically asymmetric UCHI responses as daytime heatwaves amplify mean intensity by 0.35 °C via extreme value shifts, whereas nighttime events suppress it by 0.31 °C. Crucially, heatwaves induce negligible daytime UCHI modulation but drive comparable magnitude nighttime UCHI intensification (during daytime events) and reduction (during nighttime events), demonstrating type-dependent and diurnally asymmetric urban thermal sensitivities. Heatwaves driven by distinct synoptic patterns; daytime events are controlled by an anomaly anticyclone (cloudless, dry conditions), while nighttime events occur under plateau-north anticyclones (cloudy, humid conditions). These patterns fundamentally reshape heatwave–UCHI interactions through divergent mechanisms: Daytime/nighttime heatwaves amplify/suppress nocturnal UCHI through enhanced/reduced urban heat storage and accelerated/inhibited rural radiative cooling. Our case study demonstrates that although heatwaves generally amplify nocturnal UCHI, in dry regions, their synoptic drivers significantly modify this nighttime synergy. The nocturnal UCHI during heatwave is not only driven by humidity effects but also modulated by cloud cover-regulated rural radiative cooling and urban thermal storage. These findings establish a mechanistic framework for heatwaves–UCHI interactions and provide actionable insights for heat-resilient planning in high-altitude arid cities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Urbanization-Related Radical Land Modification on Urban Extreme Climate: 2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 4250 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Mediating Role of Virtual Agglomeration in How ICT Infrastructure Drives Urban–Rural Integration: Evidence from China

by Lei Zhang, Jingfeng Yuan, Bing Zhu, Bingsheng Liu and Qiqi Ai

Land 2025, 14(10), 2032; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102032 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure can facilitate urban–rural integration. However, few studies have explored the role of virtual agglomeration in the mechanisms underlying this process, which can enable geographically dispersed market participants (both urban and rural) to achieve proximity in network space [...] Read more.

Information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure can facilitate urban–rural integration. However, few studies have explored the role of virtual agglomeration in the mechanisms underlying this process, which can enable geographically dispersed market participants (both urban and rural) to achieve proximity in network space through digital connectivity provided by ICT. This study uses the PLS-SEM method to empirically analyzes the relationships among ICT infrastructure, virtual agglomeration, and urban–rural integration based on data obtained from 31 provincial-level regions in China from 2012 to 2022. The results indicate that: (1) ICT infrastructure can promote urban–rural integration. (2) Virtual agglomeration plays a significant mediating role in the relationship between ICT infrastructure and urban–rural integration. In relatively developed eastern China, virtual agglomeration fully mediates the impact of ICT infrastructure on urban–rural integration. (3) Other complementary infrastructures—including transport and education—have positive moderating effects on the process of virtual agglomeration facilitated by ICT. This study advances the understanding of ICT’s effects on regional development from the perspective of employing a new form of spatial agglomeration (i.e., virtual agglomeration). Meanwhile, this study indicates that in order to address the global challenge of urban–rural divide, it is necessary to strengthen the development of ICT infrastructure in remote rural areas, while developing complementary infrastructure such as transportation or education in alignment with regional characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Contexts and Urban-Rural Interactions)

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18 pages, 2736 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Spatial Pattern Changes and Driving Factors of Land Use/Cover in Coastal Areas of Eastern China from 2000 to 2022: A Case Study of Jiangsu Province

by Mingli Zhang, Letian Ning, Juanling Li and Yanhua Wang

Land 2025, 14(10), 2031; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102031 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Jiangsu Province is an important economic province on the eastern coast of China, revealing the spatial–temporal characteristics, dynamic degree, and transition direction of land use/cover change, and its main driving factors are significant for the effective use of land resources and the promotion [...] Read more.

Jiangsu Province is an important economic province on the eastern coast of China, revealing the spatial–temporal characteristics, dynamic degree, and transition direction of land use/cover change, and its main driving factors are significant for the effective use of land resources and the promotion of regional human–land coordinated development. Based on land use data of Jiangsu Province from 2000 to 2020, this study investigates the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of land use/cover using the dynamics model and the transfer matrix model, and examines the influence and interaction of the driving factors between human activities and the natural environment based on 10-factor data using Geodetector. The results showed that (1) In the past 20 years, the type of land use/cover in Jiangsu Province primarily comprises cropland, water, and impervious, with the land use/cover change mode mainly consisting of a dramatic change in cropland and impervious and relatively little change in forest, grassland, water, and barren. (2) From the perspective of the dynamic rate of land use/cover change, the single land use dynamic degree showed that impervious is the only land type whose dynamics have positively increased from 2000 to 2010 and 2010 to 2020, with values of 3.67% and 3.03%, respectively. According to the classification of comprehensive motivation, the comprehensive land use motivation in Jiangsu Province in each time period from 2000 to 2010 and 2010 to 2020 is 0.46% and 0.43%, respectively, which belongs to the extremely slow change type. (3) From the perspective of land use/cover transfer, Jiangsu Province is mainly characterized by a large area of cropland transfer (−7954.30 km²) and a large area of impervious transfer (8759.58 km²). The increase in impervious is mainly attributed to the transformation of cropland and water, accounting for 4066.07 km² and 513.73 km² from 2010 to 2020, which indicates that the non-agricultural phenomenon of cropland in Jiangsu Province, i.e., the process of transforming cropland into non-agricultural construction land, is significant. (4) From the perspective of driving factors, population density (q = 0.154) and night light brightness (q = 0.156) have always been important drivers of land use/cover change in Jiangsu Province. The interaction detection indicates that the land use/cover change is driven by both socio-economic factors and natural geographic factors. (5) In response to the dual pressures of climate change and rapid urbanization, coordinating the multiple objectives of socio-economic development, food security, and ecological protection is the fundamental path to achieving sustainable land use in Jiangsu Province and similar developed coastal areas. By revealing the characteristics and driving factors of land use/cover change in Jiangsu Province, this study provides qualitative and quantitative theoretical support for the coordinated decision-making of economic development and land use planning in Jiangsu Province, specifically contributing to sustainable land planning, climate adaptation policy-making, and the enhancement of community well-being through optimized land use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Mechanism of Land-Water Interaction and Management Strategies: Recent Discoveries and the Way Forward)

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17 pages, 3279 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Assessment of Three Methods for Soil Organic Matter Determination in Calcareous Soils, Eastern Algeria

by Hadjer Laoufi, Hakim Bachir, Samir Hadj-Miloud and Kerry Clark

Land 2025, 14(10), 2030; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102030 - 10 Oct 2025

Abstract

Soil organic matter (SOM) plays a fundamental role in soil fertility and ecosystem functioning. In calcareous soils, SOM quantification is often challenging due to carbonate interference. This study aimed to compare three common analytical methods for SOM determination: the Anne method, the modified [...] Read more.

Soil organic matter (SOM) plays a fundamental role in soil fertility and ecosystem functioning. In calcareous soils, SOM quantification is often challenging due to carbonate interference. This study aimed to compare three common analytical methods for SOM determination: the Anne method, the modified Walkley–Black method, and the Loss on Ignition (LOI) method, with and without decarbonation. Twenty-five soil samples were collected from a calcareous parcel in the Bordj Bou Arreridj region (Algeria), and SOM content was analysed using all methods. The results revealed substantial variability in SOM content across methods, reflecting differences in sensitivity to carbonates and efficiency of organic carbon oxidation. The Anne method, considered the reference technique, yielded the highest mean SOM content (3.61%), followed by LOI without decarbonation (3.41%), the modified Walkley–Black method (2.96%), and LOI with decarbonation (2.55%). Strong correlations were observed between methods, particularly between the Anne method and LOI with decarbonation (R² = 0.91), confirming the latter as a reliable alternative. Decarbonation significantly reduced SOM overestimation, as demonstrated by paired statistical tests and a large effect size (Cohen’s d = 2.95). Linear regression models were established to estimate SOM from LOI results, providing a cost-effective approach for rapid assessment. These findings highlight the importance of method selection according to soil type, the need for standardised protocols, and the value of LOI with decarbonation as a robust, practical, and economical method for SOM determination in calcareous soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land – Observation and Monitoring)

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16 pages, 4015 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Does Land Management Intensity Influence Pollinator Assemblages and Plant–Pollinator Interactions in the Lowlands of Terceira Island (Azores)?

by Mário Boieiro, Ana Ceia-Hasse, Raúl Oliveira, Ricardo Costa and Paulo A. V. Borges

Land 2025, 14(10), 2029; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102029 - 10 Oct 2025

Abstract

Human-driven land use change and intensification is a major threat to global biodiversity. High levels of land management intensity may reduce species diversity, change the composition and structure of plant and animal communities and disrupt ecological processes. However, there is still scarce information [...] Read more.

Human-driven land use change and intensification is a major threat to global biodiversity. High levels of land management intensity may reduce species diversity, change the composition and structure of plant and animal communities and disrupt ecological processes. However, there is still scarce information on the impacts of land management intensity on island pollinator communities and their interactions with plants. Here, we aim to assess how different land use types (natural vegetation, semi-natural pastures, and intensive pastures), representing a gradient of grazing intensification, influence pollinator diversity and plant–pollinator interactions on Terceira Island (Azores). We surveyed 30 sites (10 per land use) and recorded 1453 visits by 41 pollinator species. Alpha diversity did not differ among land uses, but grazing intensification reduced the abundance of several native species while favoring some exotics, such as the honeybee. Network analyses showed changes in structural properties and declines in interactions between native species with increasing grazing disturbance. Introduced species, particularly the honeybee, dominated interactions in intensively managed habitats, replacing native species from key ecological roles. Our findings highlight the vulnerability of island ecosystems to grazing intensification and emphasize the need for conservation measures in the Azores, namely the reduction in grazing intensity, restoration of habitat connectivity, and implementation of pollinator-friendly agri-environmental schemes to enhance native biodiversity and sustain ecosystem services. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land, Biodiversity, and Human Wellbeing)

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17 pages, 3021 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond the Surface: Understanding Salt Crusts’ Impact on Water Loss in Arid Regions

by Younian Wang, Zhiwei Li, Shuaiyu Wang and Chengzhi Li

Land 2025, 14(10), 2028; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102028 - 10 Oct 2025

Abstract

Soils in arid regions are characterized by elevated salinity levels. During the process of soil moisture evaporation, salts are transported with water to the surface, resulting in the formation of salt crusts. Although these crusts significantly impact soil moisture evaporation, there is a [...] Read more.

Soils in arid regions are characterized by elevated salinity levels. During the process of soil moisture evaporation, salts are transported with water to the surface, resulting in the formation of salt crusts. Although these crusts significantly impact soil moisture evaporation, there is a paucity of systematic quantitative research concerning their formation mechanisms, dynamic evolution patterns, and effects on evaporation. To elucidate the mechanisms by which salt crusts influence soil moisture evaporation, this study conducted evaporation experiments utilizing brine soil columns. Various thicknesses of sand mulching (1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, and 6 cm) were applied to the top of the soil columns to generate different forms of NaCl salt crusts. Observations of soil column water evaporation rates, salt crust coverage (SCC), and salt crust morphology were conducted to analyze the effects of salt crust formation on soil water evaporation. The results indicate that the morphology and coverage of NaCl salt crusts significantly influence soil moisture evaporation. A crusty salt crust with high coverage impedes soil moisture evaporation; a patchy salt crust with moderate coverage may promote evaporation; the absence of a crust on the surface has a relatively weak effect on soil moisture evaporation. Nevertheless, the development of ‘salt trees’ within the soil profile can increase soil evaporation. These findings challenge the conventional understanding that “salt inhibits evaporation,” providing essential mechanistic parameters for accurately quantifying evaporation fluxes in saline soils and enhancing regional water cycle models, particularly the module related to atmosphere–soil water vapor exchange. Full article

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18 pages, 960 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quality Risk Identification and Fuzzy Comprehensive Assessment of Land Trusteeship Services in China

by Yunlong Sui and Lianghong Yu

Land 2025, 14(10), 2027; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102027 - 10 Oct 2025

Abstract

The quality risks of land trusteeship services are increasingly prominent, leading to reduced crop yields for farmers and land degradation; however, relevant research remains insufficient. This paper aims to identify and evaluate the quality risk level of land trusteeship services. It comprehensively adopts [...] Read more.

The quality risks of land trusteeship services are increasingly prominent, leading to reduced crop yields for farmers and land degradation; however, relevant research remains insufficient. This paper aims to identify and evaluate the quality risk level of land trusteeship services. It comprehensively adopts a field survey, web crawler technology, and expert consultation methods to identify quality risk types, and then uses the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method to assess the risk level based on survey data from Chinese farmers. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) Overall, the quality risk level of land trusteeship services is at a relatively high risk level. In terms of spatio-temporal patterns, the quality risk level shows an upward trend, and the quality risk level of mid-production services is increasing at the fastest rate. There are significant variations in service quality risk across prefecture-level cities in the Shandong Province of China. (2) In terms of risk heterogeneity, the quality risk level of small-scale pure farmers is higher than that of part-time farmers and large professional farmers, in that order. The quality risk level of the “farmer + service organization” model is higher than that of the “farmer + intermediary + service organization” model. According to the order of the quality risk level of different crops, the ranking (from highest to lowest) is cash crops, wheat, and corn. (3) The high quality risks of land trusteeship services will impact the multifunctionality of land systems. It exacerbates the land pollution and fertility degradation because of excessive application of chemical inputs like pesticides, fertilizers, and mulch by service organizations. It consequently destroys ecological systems, hinders sustainable agricultural development, and impacts farmers’ income and national food security by reducing yields. The research findings contribute to controlling the quality risks of land trusteeship services and protecting land. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Systems and Global Change)

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21 pages, 19022 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis on the “History–Space” Inter-Construction Mechanism of Traditional Villages Based on Multi-Historical Elements: A Case Study of Nankou Town, Northwest Beijing

by Yi You, Hongjie Wu and Lingyu Xu

Land 2025, 14(10), 2026; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102026 - 10 Oct 2025

Abstract

Traditional villages are widely recognized as vast cultural treasure troves, characterized by diverse historical elements and distinctive spatial forms. Within this context, historical factors exert varying degrees of influence on spatial configurations, and each type of space preserves a distinct facet of historical [...] Read more.

Traditional villages are widely recognized as vast cultural treasure troves, characterized by diverse historical elements and distinctive spatial forms. Within this context, historical factors exert varying degrees of influence on spatial configurations, and each type of space preserves a distinct facet of historical memory. Taking Nankou Village in Beijing as a case study, this paper selects three distinct periods as entry points to explore how historical elements affect the spatial morphology of villages through Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression analysis and standard deviation ellipse methods. Under the theories of Halbwachs and Nora, this research analyzes the role of village spaces in the bearing and reshaping of historical memory. It further employs qualitative materials to inversely verify the quantitative results, thereby cross-validating the findings through both quantitative and qualitative perspectives in exploring the interactions between “historical elements” and “spatial morphology”. This integrated approach culminates in the innovative proposal of a “history–space” inter-construction mechanism. The findings reveal that different types of historical elements have significant influences on guiding and reshaping spatial features, exhibiting strong spatial heterogeneity. When multiple historical elements are coupled, the evolution of village morphology shows distinct phases, directions, and expansive characteristics. As these spaces undergo continuous practice, they drive the reconstruction of memory and reinterpretation of historical significance. Ultimately, Nankou Village has developed a unique “history–space” inter-construction mechanism, which uncovers the inherent logic of their ongoing evolution. This mechanism further holds theoretical extrapolative value for other historically and culturally significant villages. This study underscores the importance of integrating research and preservation of intangible cultural elements and physical spaces, providing critical insights into understanding spatial evolution patterns of traditional villages and their influencing factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Planning and Landscape Architecture)

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27 pages, 11648 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Spatiotemporal Differentiation Characteristics of Ecological Security and Sustainable Utilization of Cultivated Land in Sichuan Province Based on Emergy–Ecological Footprint Model

by Ruilin Xiao, Jing Ling, Jianbo Fei, Junxuan Huang and Jianzhong Wang

Land 2025, 14(10), 2025; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102025 (registering DOI) - 10 Oct 2025

Abstract

Ecological security and sustainable utilization of cultivated land are the fundamental guarantee for agricultural production and a key link in maintaining ecological balance. Based on the emergy analysis theory, this study adopted the modified emergy–ecological footprint model, taking counties as the evaluation unit, [...] Read more.

Ecological security and sustainable utilization of cultivated land are the fundamental guarantee for agricultural production and a key link in maintaining ecological balance. Based on the emergy analysis theory, this study adopted the modified emergy–ecological footprint model, taking counties as the evaluation unit, to analyze the spatiotemporal differentiation characteristics of ecological security and sustainable utilization of cultivated land in Sichuan Province from 2010 to 2020. The results indicated that (1) in hilly regions, emergy output increased the most, despite a decrease in emergy input. Overall, both emergy input and output of cultivated land in Sichuan Province showed an increasing trend, with average growth rates of 6.3% and 32.6%, respectively. (2) The overall ecological security of cultivated land in the province was at risk. The at-risk area was mainly concentrated in plain, hilly and peripheral mountainous regions. The spatial pattern presented an evolutionary characteristic where the safe area contracted northwestward while the at-risk area expanded northwestward–southwestward. (3) The overall sustainable utilization of cultivated land in the province degraded from strong to weak. The spatial pattern showed an evolutionary characteristic where plain, hilly and peripheral mountainous regions tended to stabilize, while southwestern mountainous regions and northwestern plateau regions degraded. The ecological security and sustainable utilization of cultivated land in Sichuan Province both show a degradation trend. It is necessary to optimize the input structure of cultivated land systems, improve agricultural production efficiency, and formulate targeted optimization and regulation measures in combination with the actual conditions of each region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Use, Impact Assessment and Sustainability)

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23 pages, 3677 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing the Conversion Efficiency of Ecological Product Value Through Digital Finance: Measurement and Mechanism Analysis

by Weifeng Deng, Yaobin Liu and Shuoshuo Li

Land 2025, 14(10), 2024; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102024 - 10 Oct 2025

Abstract

The conversion of ecological product value is vital for reconciling economic growth with environmental sustainability. As a financial innovation that combines digital technology with inclusive finance, digital finance has emerged as a key driver of this process. Drawing on Chinese provincial panel data [...] Read more.

The conversion of ecological product value is vital for reconciling economic growth with environmental sustainability. As a financial innovation that combines digital technology with inclusive finance, digital finance has emerged as a key driver of this process. Drawing on Chinese provincial panel data from 2011 to 2020, this study shows that digital finance significantly enhances the conversion efficiency of ecological product value (CEEPV), and the results remain robust after addressing endogeneity and sensitivity concerns. The analysis reveals that the depth of use and the level of digitalization of digital finance strongly promote CEEPV, while coverage breadth has no significant effect. Mechanism tests indicate that digital finance improves CEEPV mainly through alleviating rural financing constraints, fostering entrepreneurship, encouraging green innovation, enhancing agricultural social services, and supporting rural e-commerce. In addition, traditional finance and financial regulation complement digital finance in strengthening CEEPV. Heterogeneity analysis further shows that the positive effect of digital finance is concentrated in provinces with higher levels of marketization and urbanization. Overall, the findings underscore the importance of accelerating digital finance development and implementing region-specific policies to maximize its potential in advancing ecological product value realization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Socio-Economic and Political Issues)

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19 pages, 6762 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sponge Landscapes: Flood Adaptation Landscape Type Framework for Resilient Agriculture

by Elisa Palazzo

Land 2025, 14(10), 2023; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102023 - 10 Oct 2025

Abstract

In the context of increasing climate variability and flood risk, this study explores how long-standing agricultural practices in the Hunter Valley, New South Wales, Australia, have fostered flood resilience through the integration of local agro-environmental knowledge and geomorphologic conditions. Employing a morpho-typological framework, [...] Read more.

In the context of increasing climate variability and flood risk, this study explores how long-standing agricultural practices in the Hunter Valley, New South Wales, Australia, have fostered flood resilience through the integration of local agro-environmental knowledge and geomorphologic conditions. Employing a morpho-typological framework, the research identifies three flood adaptation landscape types (FALTs)—rolling hills, foot slopes, and flood plains—each reflecting distinct interactions between landform, soil, biodiversity, hydrology, and viticultural management. Through geospatial analysis, field surveys, and interviews with local farmers, the study reveals how adaptive strategies—ranging from flood avoidance to attenuation and acceptance—have evolved in response to site-specific hydrological and ecologic dynamics. These strategies demonstrate a form of ‘sponge landscape’ design, where agricultural systems are co-shaped with natural processes to enhance systemic resilience and long-term productivity. The findings underscore the value of preserving biocultural legacies and suggest that spatially explicit, context-based approaches to flood adaptation can inform sustainable landscape planning and climate resilience strategies in other rural regions. The FALT framework offers a replicable methodology for identifying flood adaptation patterns across diverse agricultural systems in Australia, supporting proactive land use planning and nature-based solutions. This research contributes to the discourse on climate adaptation by bridging traditional environmental knowledge with contemporary planning frameworks, offering practical insights for policy, landscape management, and rural development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Planning and Landscape Architecture)

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26 pages, 12478 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Inversion and Digital Mapping of Soil Organic Carbon Content by Combining Crop-Lush Period Vegetation Indices with Ensemble Learning: A Case Study for Liaoning, Northeast China

by Quanping Zhang, Guochen Li, Huimin Dai, Jian Wang, Zhi Quan, Nana Fang, Ang Wang, Wenxin Huo and Yunting Fang

Land 2025, 14(10), 2022; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102022 - 9 Oct 2025

Abstract

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a crucial indicator of soil quality and carbon cycling. While remote sensing and machine learning enable regional scale SOC prediction, most studies rely on vegetation indices (VIs) derived from bare-soil periods, potentially neglecting vegetation–soil interactions during crop growth. [...] Read more.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a crucial indicator of soil quality and carbon cycling. While remote sensing and machine learning enable regional scale SOC prediction, most studies rely on vegetation indices (VIs) derived from bare-soil periods, potentially neglecting vegetation–soil interactions during crop growth. Given the bidirectional relationship between SOC and crop growth, we hypothesized that using crop-lush period VIs (VIs_lush) instead of bare-soil period VIs (VIs_bare) would increase the inversion accuracy. To test this hypothesis, we chose the cropland area in Liaoning Province as the study area and developed three modeling strategies (MS-1: VIs_lush + other features; MS-2: VIs_bare + other features; and MS-3: without VIs) using Landsat 8 imagery, topographic and precipitation data, and ensemble learning models (XGBoost, RF, and AdaBoost), with SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis for variable interpretation. We found that (1) all models achieved their highest performance under MS-1, with XGBoost outperforming the others across all modeling strategies; (2) for XGBoost, MS-1 yielded the highest inversion accuracy (R² = 0.84, RMSE = 2.22 g·kg⁻¹, RPD = 2.49, and RPIQ = 3.25); compared with MS-2, MS-1 reduced the RMSE by 0.31 g·kg⁻¹, increased R² from 0.77 to 0.84, and reduced the RPD by 0.31 and the RPIQ by 0.40, and compared with MS-3, MS-1 reduced the RMSE by 0.41 g·kg⁻¹, increased R² from 0.79 to 0.84, and reduced the RPD by 0.39 and the RPIQ by 0.51; (3) based on the SHAP analysis of the three modeling strategies, it is considered that precipitation, terrain and terrain analysis results are important indicators for SOC content inversion, and it is confirmed that VIs_lush contributed more than VIs_bare, supporting the rationale of using lush-period imagery; and (4) Liaoning Province exhibited distinct SOC spatial patterns (mean: 13.08 g·kg⁻¹), with values ranging from 2.19 g·kg⁻¹ (sandy central–western area) to 33.86 g·kg⁻¹ (eastern mountains/coast). This study demonstrates that integrating growth stage-specific VIs with ensemble learning can significantly enhance regional-scale SOC prediction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Soil Mapping and Precision Agriculture)

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24 pages, 14068 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Spatiotemporal Patterns of the Evolution of the Urban Heat Island Effect and Population Heat Exposure Risks in Xi’an, One of China’s Megacities, from 2003 to 2023

by Zijie Li, Xinqi Wang, Haiyue Zhao and Xiaoming Xu

Land 2025, 14(10), 2021; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102021 - 9 Oct 2025

Abstract

Under the dual pressure of rapid urbanization and global warming, the urban heat island (UHI) effect has been intensifying, accompanied by a continuous increase in heat exposure. As a typical example of rapid urbanization in China, Xi’an is facing severe challenges. However, previous [...] Read more.

Under the dual pressure of rapid urbanization and global warming, the urban heat island (UHI) effect has been intensifying, accompanied by a continuous increase in heat exposure. As a typical example of rapid urbanization in China, Xi’an is facing severe challenges. However, previous research on diurnal variations in long-term UHI effects and heat risks is insufficient. So, this study utilized the temperature level threshold method and the heat exposure risk assessment model to investigate the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of diurnal variations in the UHI and population heat exposure risks in Xi’an from 2003 to 2023. The results indicate that (1) over the past two decades, both the summer UHI intensity and the population heat exposure risks in Xi’an exhibited an overall intensifying trend, (2) spatial expansion followed a radial diffusion pattern centered on the urban core, with heat risk levels decreasing outward, (3) the nighttime expansion of high-level UHI zones and risk areas was slightly less than during the daytime, and (4) changes in the thermal environment often preceded population aggregation, indicating a lag effect in the evolution of heat exposure risks. This study deepened the understanding of the UHI and heat exposure for governments and planners and can help propose scientific UHI mitigation measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Heat Island Effects in Global Cities: Balancing Rapid Urbanization, Land Surface Temperature Dynamics, and Sustainable Adaptation Strategies)

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26 pages, 5822 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Causal Effect of Land-Use Transformation on Urban Vitality in the Context of Urban Regeneration: A Case Study of Chengdu

by Xin Wen, Rui Lu, Tingting Song, Yudi Wang, Jian Wu and Lei Gong

Land 2025, 14(10), 2020; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102020 - 9 Oct 2025

Abstract

With the global deceleration of urbanization, traditional regeneration strategies centered on demolition and reconstruction have revealed substantial limitations. Against this backdrop, land-use transformation has emerged as a more cost-effective and less disruptive alternative. Focusing on Chengdu, China, this study employs a causal machine [...] Read more.

With the global deceleration of urbanization, traditional regeneration strategies centered on demolition and reconstruction have revealed substantial limitations. Against this backdrop, land-use transformation has emerged as a more cost-effective and less disruptive alternative. Focusing on Chengdu, China, this study employs a causal machine learning framework to rigorously assess the impacts of residential-to-commercial and industrial-to-commercial conversions on urban vitality. The findings demonstrate that population density consistently constitutes the fundamental driver across both transformation pathways. Residential-to-commercial conversion reflects a regeneration trajectory that integrates residential and commercial functions while prioritizing community livability, whereas industrial-to-commercial conversion entails large-scale spatial restructuring and enhanced accessibility. Overall, the study uncovers the heterogeneous causal effects of land-use transformation on urban vitality, thereby providing a theoretical basis to inform differentiated and sustainable urban regeneration policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Use, Impact Assessment and Sustainability)

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16 pages, 29059 KB

Open AccessArticle

Community Morphology and Perceptual Evaluation from the Perspective of Density: Evidence from 50 High-Density Communities in Guangzhou, China

by Zihao Wang, Chunyang Zhang, Xinjian Li and Linlin Luo

Land 2025, 14(10), 2019; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102019 - 9 Oct 2025

Abstract

Spatial density, as a key indicator of the quality of the urban residential environment, comprises both physical and perceived dimensions. Physical density refers to objective spatial characteristics (e.g., building density and population density), whereas perceived density denotes residents’ perceptual evaluations (e.g., perceived crowding, [...] Read more.

Spatial density, as a key indicator of the quality of the urban residential environment, comprises both physical and perceived dimensions. Physical density refers to objective spatial characteristics (e.g., building density and population density), whereas perceived density denotes residents’ perceptual evaluations (e.g., perceived crowding, visual openness, and overall environmental quality). Clarifying the relationship between physical and perceived density is therefore critical for advancing livability-oriented urban planning and design. This study examines the relationship through an empirical analysis of 50 representative high-density communities in Guangzhou. Using morphological classification, descriptive statistics, and multiple linear regression, the analysis compares objective density indicators with residents’ perceptual evaluations and identifies key environmental factors that shape perceived density. Findings indicate that physical and perceived density are not fully aligned: compact but coherent spatial forms can enhance residents’ perceptual evaluations, whereas overcrowded and deteriorating environments intensify negative perceptions. The identified community typologies—for example, urban villages, traditional walk-up estates, and modern high-rise complexes—exhibit distinct perceptual patterns and influencing factors. These results highlight the need for density regulation to move beyond conventional physical indicators and to incorporate perceptual dimensions into planning frameworks. Overall, the study provides theoretical insights and practical guidance for tailored strategies in the renewal and management of high-density communities. Full article

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22 pages, 6366 KB

Open AccessArticle

Strategic Land Assessment, Land Suitability, and Territorial Intelligence for Metropolitan Infrastructure: Rethinking Airport Location in the Madrid Region

by Álvaro Luengo Cartagena and Roberto Díez-Pisonero

Land 2025, 14(10), 2018; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102018 - 9 Oct 2025

Abstract

In a context of growing saturation at Madrid–Barajas Airport and renewed debate on a second airport for the metropolitan region, this study proposes a GIS-based multicriteria evaluation (MCE) model to identify alternative locations from a territorial perspective. The model integrates environmental constraints, accessibility, [...] Read more.

In a context of growing saturation at Madrid–Barajas Airport and renewed debate on a second airport for the metropolitan region, this study proposes a GIS-based multicriteria evaluation (MCE) model to identify alternative locations from a territorial perspective. The model integrates environmental constraints, accessibility, spatial logic, and infrastructural compatibility to determine land suitability for large-scale airport development. Grounded in territorial intelligence and sustainable land management, the approach combines quantitative GIS analysis with normative planning criteria, offering a replicable and transparent tool for evidence-based decision-making. Results highlight four high-potential areas, La Sagra, Talavera de la Reina, Valdeluz, and Arganda, contrasted with institutional preferences such as the expansion of Barajas or the Casarrubios del Monte proposal. These findings show that alternative sites offer stronger scalability, reduced environmental impacts, and improved intermodal integration. Beyond technical evaluation, the study contributes to debates on metropolitan governance and spatial justice, underscoring the need to rethink airport location as a strategic instrument for land-use planning, regional cohesion, and sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Space Optimization and Governance)

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28 pages, 11565 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reframing Urban Accessibility Through Universal Design: A Critical Review with Case Insights from Kaimakli Linear Park

by Maria Papanicolaou, Martha Katafygiotou and Thomas Dimopoulos

Land 2025, 14(10), 2017; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102017 - 8 Oct 2025

Abstract

This paper presents a critical review of urban accessibility frameworks, standards, and implementation challenges, grounded in the principles of Universal Design (UD), Social Inclusion Theory, and Sustainable Urbanism. Drawing upon global guidelines, regulatory instruments, and recent academic discourse, it identifies common gaps between [...] Read more.

This paper presents a critical review of urban accessibility frameworks, standards, and implementation challenges, grounded in the principles of Universal Design (UD), Social Inclusion Theory, and Sustainable Urbanism. Drawing upon global guidelines, regulatory instruments, and recent academic discourse, it identifies common gaps between accessibility policy and the lived realities of urban space users. This paper integrates these insights with an applied case study of Kaimakli Linear Park in Nicosia, Cyprus—an observational field audit and stakeholder interview series that illustrates the practical challenges of implementing inclusive design in legacy urban environments. Key barriers identified include inconsistent application of design standards, limited tactile and sensory guidance, inadequate mobility infrastructure, and insufficient stakeholder coordination. The case is not offered as a statistically generalizable sample but as an illustrative microcosm of systemic accessibility deficits. This integrative approach offers a framework for diagnosing spatial exclusion in public parks and provides cost-effective, policy-aligned strategies for inclusive urban transformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Planning and Landscape Architecture)

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14 pages, 1111 KB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Mercury and Arsenic Release from the La Soterraña Abandoned Mine Waste Dump (Asturias, Spain): Source-Term Reconstruction Using High-Accuracy UAV Surveys and Historical Topographic Data

by Lorena Salgado, Arturo Colina, Alejandro Vega, Luis M. Lara, Eduardo Rodríguez-Valdés, José R. Gallego, Elías Afif Khouri and Rubén Forján

Land 2025, 14(10), 2016; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102016 - 8 Oct 2025

Abstract

The waste dump from the abandoned La Soterraña mine, a former mercury extraction site, contains high concentrations of mercury (Hg) and arsenic (As), which pose a significant environmental risk due to direct exposure to the environment. Given the site’s topography and slope, surface [...] Read more.

The waste dump from the abandoned La Soterraña mine, a former mercury extraction site, contains high concentrations of mercury (Hg) and arsenic (As), which pose a significant environmental risk due to direct exposure to the environment. Given the site’s topography and slope, surface runoff has been identified as the primary mechanism for the dispersal of these toxic elements into nearby watercourses. This study quantifies the amount of Hg and As released into fluvial systems through surface runoff from the waste dump. Historical topographic data, Airborne Laser Exploration Survey public data from the National Plan for Aerial Orthophotographs (1st PNOA-LiDAR) of the Spanish Ministry of Transport, Mobility and Urban Agenda, and high-precision photogrammetric drone surveys were utilized, with centimeter-level accuracy achieved using airborne GNSS RTK positioning systems on the drone. The methodology yields reliable results when comparing surfaces generated from topographic data collected with consistent methodologies and standards. Analysis indicates an environmental release exceeding 1000 kg of mercury (Hg) and 12,000 kg of arsenic (As) between 2019 and 2023, based on high spatial resolution data (GSD = 8 cm). These findings highlight a sustained temporal contribution of chemical contaminants, which imposes serious environmental and biological health risks due to persistent exposure to toxic elements. Full article

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