Strategy for the Conversion of 2D to 3D Cadastral Maps by Standardizing the Height Limit of Land Rights Space Based on Land Use/Land Cover

Abstract

This study examines the conversion strategy of 2D to 3D cadastral maps by standardizing the height limits of land rights based on LU/LC. To achieve 3D cadastral maps, the research proposes a conversion strategy considering height factors. The height dimension of cadastral maps faces challenges in determining maximum heights for features like buildings, given varying regional regulations. As a solution, the concept of surface feature height (SFH) is applied along with LU/LC classification. Economic considerations, such as state revenue from taxes, are also factored into the proposed height limits. The results indicate that building/property heights in Bekasi Regency show significant development potential. In the residential sector, the maximum height reaches 24 m, lower than Bekasi City (48 m) and Bandung City (30 m). In the industrial sector, while heights can reach 25 m, the regulatory limit is only 9 m, posing challenges for investment. In the commercial sector, the maximum height can reach 45 m, but the low regulatory limit of 10 m restricts further development. This research provides a foundation for policy development and an effective 3D cadastral system, emphasizing the need for Bekasi Regency to re-evaluate its building height regulations to maximize its development potential.

1. Introduction

In an era of rapid urbanization, many cities around the world are experiencing complex vertical development, particularly with the emergence of high-rise buildings and underground infrastructure [1]. This phenomenon occurs in several cities globally, such as New York City, known for its skyscrapers like the Empire State Building and One World Trade Center, as well as its advanced underground transportation system [2,3]. In Europe, Rotterdam in the Netherlands features high-rise buildings that combine office, hotel, and apartment functions [4,5]. In Asia, the trend of vertical development is also increasing, especially in Singapore, where areas like Marina Bay, Orchard Road, and the Central Business District demonstrate efforts to optimize limited space use [6,7,8]. Notable projects in Singapore include Marina Bay Sands, One Raffles Place, and the buildings developed by the Housing and Development Board in various residential areas [7]. In Indonesia, a similar phenomenon is taking place in major cities like Jakarta, Surabaya, and Bandung. High-rise projects such as BCA Tower, the Signature, and Trans Jakarta Tower serve as tangible evidence of this development [9]. Many developers are also constructing high-rise apartments to provide more affordable housing in strategic locations. Additionally, transportation infrastructure development, such as the Jakarta MRT, encourages further vertical construction around stations.

Given the phenomenon of vertical development that increasingly dominates nearly the entire world, it is important to examine and discuss the 3D cadastre [10]. Three-dimensional cadastre offers solutions for managing and mapping space usage at various levels, both above and below ground [11]. The main benefits of 3D cadastre include efficient space usage, allowing developers to plan the construction of high-rise buildings and underground infrastructure more effectively [10]. Moreover, 3D cadastre also reduces land use conflicts, as clear information about vertical boundaries helps prevent overlapping land rights [12]. This system enhances transparency in ownership and use of vertical space, providing greater security for property owners [13].

In this context, the significance of 3D cadastre is profound, as it not only facilitates sustainable urban development but also enhances the quality of life for residents by ensuring efficient land use and minimizing conflicts. A well-implemented 3D cadastre system can lead to more organized urban environments, where vertical space is utilized responsibly, ultimately contributing to the resilience of cities facing rapid growth. In this context, RRR (rights, restrictions, and responsibilities) becomes highly relevant, as effective space management must consider the rights of landowners, existing restrictions, and social responsibilities in land use [14]. Furthermore, the concept of fiscal cadastre is also important to integrate, as this system assists in determining fair land values and property taxes, while supporting funding for development. Thus, the 3D cadastre not only supports sustainable city growth but also ensures that vertical space is utilized optimally and responsibly [10].

Three-dimensional cadastre is crucial in managing vertical space [15]. Ambiguity in land rights boundaries can lead to conflicts between property owners, especially when vertical rights are not well-defined [16]. This situation results in overlapping ownership, which can trigger prolonged legal disputes and disrupt social stability. Additionally, without clear mapping of space usage above and below ground, planning for vertical development becomes challenging and inefficient, often leading to resource waste and suboptimal space utilization [17]. In the context of rapid urbanization, the absence of a 3D cadastre exacerbates housing, and infrastructure issues and hinders sustainable city development [18].

Previous research has largely focused on 2D spatial planning and has often overlooked the complexities involved in managing vertical space [19]. For example, studies conducted in Malaysia indicate that the existing 2D systems cannot provide adequate representation for 3D structures [20]. In Turkey, research highlights that the current systems do not effectively manage plot boundaries, which can lead to conflicts in land ownership [21,22]. Research in the Netherlands also shows that legal boundaries in 3D do not always correspond to existing physical boundaries [23]. Three-dimensional representations must be part of the registration process, and two-dimensional cadastral maps are insufficient for high-density areas [23]. Additionally, there are difficulties in aligning land boundaries with variations in terrain. In Korea, it has been demonstrated that multifunctional and multi-purpose vertical buildings require classification according to applicable regulations. Based on the practices implemented in Korea, the definition of rights to space can be divided into three categories: land rights, building rights, and unit or strata title objects [24]. Singapore has successfully integrated 3D cadastre into land management, enhancing visualization and multi-level property registration [15]. By utilizing the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) and CityGML standards, legal and physical data can be effectively integrated, resulting in reliable 3D digital maps for underground infrastructure and urban planning [25,26,27]. Although some countries have implemented 3D cadastre, there are technical challenges in implementing 3D cadastre, including the complexity of 3D data models, the need for specialized expertise, and the limitations of current database systems [28]. The conversion of conceptual models to practical implementation, legal challenges related to adoption, and the need for efficient data lifecycle management and integration of information from various stakeholders also need to be addressed [29,30].

In Indonesia, the challenge of defining spatial boundaries for 3D management remains a significant issue [31]. Currently, spatial planning in Indonesia does not fully support the definition of vertical rights space in the 3D cadastre [32]. The country is now focusing on converting 2D cadastral maps into 3D visualizations, allowing for a deeper understanding of vertical rights space [33]. Each region in Indonesia has the authority to regulate its own territory, leading to heterogeneous characteristics and continued reliance on established 2D cadastre [34]. Over time, 2D cadastral data have become nearly complete, making it impossible to overlook 2D boundaries. Thus, the definition of rights space must be approached spatially, based on regulatory analysis and the concept of 3D rights space [35]. Efforts to implement vertical rights space aim to create a more orderly and responsible spatial planning system. This includes clear limitations, enabling each stakeholder to manage space in accordance with established rights and obligations while minimizing potential conflicts that may arise from unplanned land use [32,36]. Currently, Indonesia’s cadastre primarily consists of 2D data representing land boundaries on the earth’s surface [37]. However, the increasing use of underground space, such as tunnels and the construction of high-rise buildings and apartments, creates a demand for more complex boundary modeling [37,38]. Therefore, transforming conventional 2D cadastre into 3D models is essential for adequately representing the upper and lower limits of land parcels [39]. The establishment of rights space is critically needed in Indonesia due to the existing 2D cadastre system, diverse regional characteristics, and various regulations across different areas. The transition to 3D cadastre is necessary because conventional cadastral data usually only identify horizontal land boundaries, while underground and above-ground spaces also require vertical boundary identification [40].

The process of developing 3D rights space can be achieved through the creation of 3D cadastre models and the definition of 3D rights space [41]. By utilizing three-dimensional representations, property owners can view and manage their rights more effectively [42]. This model allows for more accurate mapping of space above and below ground, enabling clear identification of each right, obligation, and limitation [43,44,45]. Furthermore, the 3D rights space model can facilitate collaboration among various stakeholders, such as the government, developers, and communities, in planning and managing space [46,47]. Thus, the implementation of this model not only reduces potential conflicts but also supports sustainable development that considers social, economic, and environmental aspects in the use of vertical space [36]. Furthermore, the definition of rights space requires a third dimension for its graphical visualization. However, it is not enough to merely fulfill the rights of each rights holder if applicable regulations and responsibilities are not assigned. The next issue relates to reference height, which is the determination of vertical spatial rights boundaries for 3D cadastre from the existing 2D cadastral maps.

To fill the research gap, we propose several variables to be considered. The first variable is the use of LU/LC as an implication or impact in determining height limits within the context of spatial planning, where this LU/LC classification will be used to establish height limits for each different classification zone, ensuring that height limits will have the same value for the same LU/LC type. The second variable related to the determination of height limits used in this study is the definition of surface feature height (SFH), which is the height from the roof to the floor of an object, assuming that the floor is situated or attached to the ground surface and based on applicable height regulations. The third variable indicates that when applying these height limits, the minimum standard deviation calculation is used to minimize conflicts. The fourth variable states that the height limits applied will correlate with the rights and responsibilities of space utilization, where the types of rights held include land and property rights. The presence of this rights variable will have implications for changes in regulations that could alter the value of utilization in the form of taxes, making the type of rights in this study very important. However, a limitation of this research is that, considering the global quality of data and the extensive coverage area, terrain conditions are not considered in determining height limits.

2. Methods

2.1. Study Area

Bekasi Regency is a regency of West Java Province, Indonesia. Its regency seat is in the district of Central Cikarang, as shown in Figure 1. It is bordered by Jakarta Special Region (the administrative cities of North Jakarta and East Jakarta) and by Bekasi City (which is a separate administration from the Regency) to the west, by Bogor Regency to the south, by Karawang Regency to the east and by the Java Sea to the north.

This highly urbanized area (mostly suburban to the west of Jakarta) covered 1151.53 km² (444.61 sq mi) and according to 2011 data from the Jakarta Central Bureau of Statistics had 2,630,401 residents in the 2010 Census and 3,113,017 residents in the 2020 Census based on 2021 data from the Jakarta Central Bureau of Statistics, with an average density of 2443.7 inhabitants per square kilometer (6329/sq mi). The official estimate as of mid-2023 was 3,193,006. These figures exclude the area and population of the separate City of Bekasi (with 2,627,307 population in mid-2023), which lies between the Regency and Jakarta, and has been independent of the Regency since 16 December 1996.

Bekasi Regency, one of the buffer areas of DKI Jakarta, experienced an urbanization process in the form of a population increase of 2.72% per year from 1950 to 2024 [48] and changes in land cover of built-up areas, such as settlements, industries and roads [49]. Cibatu is a village located in the South Cikarang sub-district of the Bekasi Regency in West Java, Indonesia. The village is bordered by two major industrial areas, the Jababeka/Cikarang Baru industrial area, and the Lippo Cikarang industrial area. The majority of the village’s residents are employed in the manufacturing sector, particularly in the numerous factories that have developed in Cikarang during the industrial era. Cibatu village is located in the South Cikarang sub-district of the Bekasi Regency in West Java, Indonesia. Cibatu has a toll gate located at kilometer 34 on the Jakarta–Cikampek Toll Road section, providing direct toll road access to the Lippo Cikarang and Jababeka areas. The rapid industrial development in Cibatu village has been selected as a case study for this research.

2.2. Research Method

The research methodology was initiated with a comprehensive literature review and the collection of pertinent data Figure 2. The necessary data comprised the regional spatial plan (RTRW), land use and land cover (LU/LC) maps, land parcel maps, and a comprehensive record of rights, along with pertinent regulations on rights-of-way, such as KDB and KLB. This extensive set of data served as the foundation for both two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) modeling. In the 2D stage, the collected land data were used to create a representation of land rights, including information on land use, type, and ownership. The source data for the DSM was derived from the SRTM, which provides a representation of surface elevation that includes various features such as buildings and vegetation. In urban areas with high-rise buildings, the accuracy of DSM, particularly from remote sensing, can be affected by reflections from the buildings. In logically, more dense environments, we need more accurate. As the third dimension in the construction of the 3D cadastral map, digital surface model (DSM) data from SRTM and digital terrain model (DTM) were integrated to develop a 3D representation of land rights. The final step involves the analysis of the 3D cadastral model and rights space using predetermined criteria to formulate recommendations.

The data required for the 3D cadastre transformation modeling research include land data from Bekasi Regency for the year 2024, obtained from the National Land Agency (BPN) of Bekasi Regency. Additionally, land use and land cover data were sourced from the Open Street Map (OSM). The study utilized the regional spatial planning (RTRW) data for the years 2011–2031 in Bekasi Regency. Furthermore, a digital terrain model (DTM) with a resolution of 12.5 m was acquired from the Indonesian Topographic Map (RBI), which can be downloaded from the portal at https://tanahair.indonesia.go.id/ (accessed on 22 January 2025). Lastly, a digital surface model (DSM) was obtained from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data provided by NASA, which have a resolution of 30 m. Each of these data sources plays a crucial role in accurately modeling and transforming the 3D cadastral information.

2.3. Land Use/Land Cover 2D Map

Land cover is defined as the physical cover observed on the Earth’s surface, including vegetation (natural or artificial) and human-made structures. Land use is characterized by the arrangements, activities, and inputs undertaken by people within specific types of land cover to produce, transform, or maintain it. This definition of land use establishes a direct relationship between land cover and human actions in their environment [50], in which the terms LU/LC are used. The LU/LC classification will be utilized for calculating SFH, which serves as the primary data in defining the appropriate height requirements for space.

The LU/LC classification is utilized in the primary requirements for determining height limits because it considers several aspects, namely economic factors and environmental suitability that have implications for policy [51,52,53]. This is because of land use changes on building heights not being uniform. Various types of land use conversions cause different increases in building heights; for example, converting industrial land to residential results in an average increase of 3.68 floors, while converting commercial land to residential results in an increase of 2.35 floors [53]. In terms of economic aspects, research conducted in Fukuoka, Japan, indicates that height restrictions imposed by land use regulations—specifically for buildings within 4000 m of flight areas—have a significant negative effect on land prices. Areas with height restrictions tend to have lower land values compared to areas where such restrictions are relaxed [52]. Regarding environmental suitability, cities with historical sites, such as Beijing, exhibit stricter regulations in proximity to these areas, indicating that cultural and historical considerations influence regulatory decisions. Additionally, building height limits can be adjusted in response to changing demand dynamics, such as those triggered by the construction of new subway stations in China [51].

Therefore, this LU/LC classification is crucial for the development of 3D cadastre and vertical space rights. By understanding land use in detail, authorities can develop a more comprehensive cadastre system that includes three-dimensional information regarding structures and the use of vertical space. This enables better management of land and space rights, as well as facilitating more efficient planning in the context of urbanization and sustainable development.

Figure 3 displays the classification of land use and land cover (LU/LC) for the Bekasi Regency and Figure 4 for the Cibatu Village area, derived from Open Street Map data. The selection of specific study areas, such as Bekasi District and Cibatu Village in West Java, is based on the complexity of the region, which features diverse land covers, including commercial, industrial, and residential areas. Thus, Bekasi and Cibatu are considered representative of the existing variation in land use. The use of data from Open Street Map was chosen as an initial strategy because this platform provides open and accessible geospatial data, offering a solid foundation for further analysis.

This map employs various colors to illustrate different types of land use and cover, facilitating an understanding of the spatial distribution of land use in the region. The categories shown include residential areas (marked in blue-black), indicating zones inhabited by houses and related facilities; commercial and service areas (marked in purple), designated for businesses and services; industrial zones (marked in yellow), allocated for manufacturing activities; and agricultural areas (marked in light green), used for farming activities. Additionally, there are protected areas (marked in maroon) intended for conservation, and open spaces (marked in green and blue-gray) that encompass parks and recreational areas. The map also indicates areas with “No Data” where land use information is unavailable, highlighting gaps in the data collection process.

2.4. Type of Land Right and Land Parcels 2D Map

In Indonesia, the classification of land rights is regulated by various laws and regulations, including the Basic Agrarian Law (UUPA) No. 5 of 1960 [54]. This classification is important for determining the legal status and use of land. The classification of these rights is obtained from 2D parcel data sourced from the local National Land Agency (BPN). Parcel data are information that presents details about boundaries, area, and ownership status of the land. This classification includes several types of rights, such as the Right of Ownership, which grants the highest authority to the owner to control and transfer the land; the Right to Build, which allows the holder to construct buildings on land not owned by them for a specified period; and the Right of Use, which grants the right to use someone else’s land, typically for agricultural or forestry purposes. Additionally, there is the Right of Endowment, designated for the use of state-owned land for specific interests, and National Land, which is controlled by the state and does not have specific rights. Each classification is processed using QGIS 3.40.0 software.

Figure 5 shows the classification of land rights and a 2D parcel map derived from the land parcel data of the National Land Agency (BPN) for the Bekasi Regency, while Figure 6 presents the same classification for the Cibatu sub-district. This map utilizes various colors to represent different types of land rights, including the right to build (marked in red), ownership rights (marked in blue), the right to use buildings (marked in green), controlled land rights (marked in yellow), and national land (marked in purple).

These maps provide an in-depth visualization of land rights distribution in the Bekasi Regency and Cibatu sub-district, enabling a more detailed spatial analysis of land ownership and usage. This classification is crucial in the context of developing a 3D cadastre, which requires the integration of horizontal and vertical data to create accurate three-dimensional models. Thus, the development of a 3D cadastre not only provides information about the physical dimensions of buildings but also creates a more holistic understanding of vertical space rights. Although the development from 2D to 3D cadastral system has problems such as acquisition technology, facility readiness, and human resources. This understanding is increasingly vital in addressing the challenges of urbanization and complex space management, as well as supporting data-driven decision-making for more effective spatial planning.

The classification information based on LU/LC and land rights is then visualized in the graph in Figure 7, which shows the land area composition according to types of land rights across different LU/LC categories. By linking the classification map with the graph, we can observe the relationship between land rights and land utilization, which is essential for effective spatial planning and sustainable resource management.

In the industrial sector, the data reveal that the “Right to Build” accounts for the largest area, measuring approximately 6933.94 hectares. This indicates significant investment in infrastructure and development aimed at enhancing industrial productivity. The “Right of Ownership” follows with 490.01 hectares, suggesting that ownership rights are predominantly held in areas designated for industrial use. The relatively small areas under the “Right to Use” (167.68 hectares) and “National Land” (2967.73 hectares) indicate limited public or state control over industrial lands, reflecting a trend towards privatization and greater reliance on private investment in industrial development.

The settlement graph highlights a markedly different distribution. The “Right of Ownership” emerges as the predominant category, encompassing 123,165.56 hectares. This extensive area under ownership rights points to a well-established residential framework, where individuals or entities hold substantial control over their properties. The “Right to Build” also plays a crucial role, with an area of 112,602.20 hectares, indicating ongoing development and construction activities within residential zones. The smaller areas for “National Land” (3828.04 hectares) and “Right of Endowment” (0.62 hectares) suggest a limited presence of public land in the settlement sector, reinforcing the notion of private ownership as the primary driver of land use.

In the commercial sector, the “Right to Build” again takes the lead with an area of 250,581 hectares, underscoring the importance of commercial development in the region. This extensive area signifies a thriving commercial landscape, likely catering to a diverse range of businesses and services. The “Right of Ownership” and “National Land” categories are considerably smaller, with 49,367.83 and 40,423.23 hectares, respectively. This distribution indicates that while ownership exists, the predominant use of land for commercial purposes is under the right to build, facilitating more dynamic and responsive commercial activities.

The tourism sector presents a unique case, where the “Right to Build” dominates with 63,098 hectares. This allocation suggests significant investment in infrastructure aimed at enhancing tourism experiences, from hotels to recreational facilities. The smaller areas allocated for “Right of Ownership” (0.76 hectares) and “National Land” (0.62 hectares) indicate that tourism development may be largely driven by private investments, with less emphasis on state-owned land.

Overall, the analysis of area distribution by type of land rights and land cover reveals critical insights into land utilization patterns across various sectors. The predominance of the “Right to Build” in industry, commercial, and tourism sectors highlights a trend towards development-oriented land use, while the significant area under “Right of Ownership” in settlements underscores the importance of private ownership in residential development. These findings suggest that policies aimed at land management should consider these dynamics to promote sustainable development while addressing the needs of various stakeholders in the region.

2.5. The Surface Feature Height (SFH)

Bekasi Regency LU/LC data accessed from Open Street Map and the LU/LC classification are divided into several characteristic classes, like built-up areas (offices buildings, commercial areas, industries, settlements, roads, etc.), vegetation (agriculture, forest and green open space, conservation area, etc.), and mining area [55]. Referring to the Provincial and district/city spatial planning (RTRW), which has a validity period of 20 years and can be reviewed every 5 years in accordance with regulations, the update of SFH should consider the RTRW review cycle. This ensures that the determination of SFH aligns with the applicable spatial planning policies and the changes occurring on the ground. Based on the literature review on the definition of LU/LC height as a land parcel right space, it was found that LU/LC height is identical to SFH and the vertical reference uses the ground surface. Meanwhile, the depth of underground space utilization (UFH: underground feature height), apart from the literature, is determined from the commonly used construction development plan (Figure 8)—integration SFH and UFH, defined as S-UFH, which is the real height differences between DSM and DTM.

Equation of S-UFH illustrated by SFH

$$SFH=DSM-DTM$$

(1)

In the context of land and resource management, it is crucial to understand regulations related to surface and subsurface features, particularly within the framework of 3D cadastre and the vertical delineation of land use boundaries. This review of regulations aims to establish clear limits regarding the use of space above and below the ground, allowing land rights holders to comprehend their rights and obligations. One significant regulation in this regard is [56], which governs various aspects related to management rights, land rights, housing units, and land registration. This regulation encompasses land use for commercial, economic, and industrial purposes. The types of rights regulated include management rights, usage rights, building use rights, and ownership rights of apartment units. Additionally, this regulation sets standards for land parcels, particularly regarding surface land, while considering the building coefficient (KDB) and floor area ratio (KLB) outlined in the spatial planning.

Secondly, ref. [57] regulates the use of underground space, categorizing it into shallow and deep underground spaces. Article 4 permits shallow underground spaces for commercial land with a maximum depth of 10 m from the surface. This regulation aims to optimize the use of urban space while ensuring that building structures remain safe and comply with spatial planning. Meanwhile, deep underground spaces, which exceed 10 m in depth, provide additional flexibility for the development of projects that require larger underground areas.

Thirdly, Article 44 in [58] governs building permit applications, covering various types of buildings such as residential, commercial, industrial, and public buildings. This regulation aims to ensure that all constructions are undertaken according to established standards, while also considering safety, quality, and sustainability aspects. With these provisions, developers are expected to apply for permits that align with surface land uses.

Fourthly, the Regional Regulation of South Kalimantan Province [59] regulates groundwater management, particularly concerning the use of deep wells. This regulation stipulates that deep wells must have a depth of less than 40 m from the surface. The purpose of this provision is to protect groundwater resources and ensure that their use does not disrupt ecosystem balance and water quality.

Fifthly, ref. [60] regulates technical inspections and safety of installations and equipment in oil and gas activities. This regulation includes provisions regarding gas or water pipes used in mining. For pipes located on land, a minimum depth of 1 m below the surface is mandated, while offshore pipes must reach a minimum depth of 2 m below the seabed. This regulation aims to ensure safe pipe installations, reduce the risk of leaks, and protect the environment from potential pollution.

Lastly, Article 4, Paragraph 2 in [61] regulates the placement of utility networks, with different provisions based on network diameter. For utility networks with a diameter smaller than 600 mm, a minimum depth of 1.1 m from the road surface is permitted. Meanwhile, for networks with a diameter equal to or greater than 600 mm, the minimum depth is set at 1.5 m. Additionally, for high-voltage cable channels, a minimum depth of 2.5 m must be adhered to. This regulation aims to ensure the safety and integrity of utility networks, reduce the risk of disruptions to infrastructure and road users, and support better management of public space.

In the context of determining vertical space boundaries for land rights in 3D cadastre, understanding regulations related to the use of surface and underground space is crucial. Government Regulation Number 18 of 2021 establishes clear limitations on space use, KDB, and KLB, which impact building height and land use.

Table 1. KDB and KLB regulations [56].

No	Land Use/Land Cover	KDB (%)			KLB
		Maximum
		Bekasi	Bandung	Surabaya	Bekasi	Bandung	Surabaya
1	Flat or Apartment	50	40	60	8	4	4.8
2	Trade and Service Area	50	70	60	4	5.6	2
3	Industrial Area	50	40	60	1.5	1.2	1.8
4	Agriculture	20	10	10	0.2	0.2	0.2
5	Forest and Green Open Spaces	10	10	10	0.2	0.2	0.2
6	Office	50	50	50	5	2.5	9
7	Conservation	10	10	-	0.1	0.2	-
8	Tourism Area	50	60	-	1.5	2.4	-
9	Mining Area	50	-	-	1.5	-	-

presents information on KDB and KLB based on land use types. These data serve to clarify the limitations set forth in the regulations, specifically regarding permissible building heights. By linking these regulations with the data in the table, understanding the provisions related to building height can influence effective and sustainable spatial planning and management.

The regulations pertaining to KDB–KLB are no longer adequate in light of the rapid vertical development that has occurred due to the scarcity of available space. The KDB–KLB value is intrinsically linked to spatial planning, which exerts an economic influence on regional income. From an economic vantage point, it is imperative to establish a minimum standard value for land and building tax, which should be uniform across all regions in Indonesia. From this standard value, authorized officials can determine multiplier factors based on the grouping of spatial utilization characteristics.

Based on the regulations concerning the building coefficient (KDB) and floor area ratio (KLB) in Indonesia, the calculation of building height involves several steps (Figure 9). First, the ground floor area of the building is determined using the following formula:

$$Building\hspace{0.17em}area\hspace{0.17em}\left({\mathrm{m}}^2\right)=\hspace{0.17em}\left({\displaystyle \frac{KDB\hspace{0.17em}\times \hspace{0.17em}Land\hspace{0.17em}area\hspace{0.17em}\left({\mathrm{m}}^2\right)}{100}}\right)$$

Next, the number of floors in the building is calculated with the following formula:

$$Numberoffloors=({\displaystyle \frac{KLB\times Landarea\left({\mathrm{m}}^2\right)}{BuildingArea\left({\mathrm{m}}^2\right)}})$$

Finally, to determine the building height, ref. [62] Law No. 28 of 2002 concerning buildings specifies that the ideal distance between the floor and ceiling should be between 2.6 and 2.8 m. Furthermore, ref. [63] Government Regulation No. 16 of 2021 specifies that the minimum height for residential buildings is set at 2.7 m. Therefore, we have adopted the maximum value of 2.8 m to ensure consistency and compliance with applicable standards. This height value is particularly relevant for the study area in Bekasi Regency, which is predominantly characterized by residential zones. In this context, the value of 2.8 m is used as a reference for residential building height. From a spatial planning perspective, each zone or LU/LC type that is the same will also have a uniform height limit. However, it is important to note that the height of buildings can also be influenced by their position relative to the road [63]. For instance, if a building or certain zone is in an area served by arterial or collector roads, the building height may exceed 2.8 m, as buildings in such locations tend to have larger footprints. Conversely, for buildings located on local streets, the footprint is usually smaller, allowing for heights less than 2.8 m. Thus, the selection of the height value of 2.8 m is based on several considerations, including the regulatory provisions mentioned, the type of land use zone, and the road conditions that affect the design of the buildings, but terrain conditions have not been considered in determining the height limit.

This value is established not only on technical considerations but also reflects a standard that is expected to be applied broadly across Indonesia. By utilizing the value set forth in this regulation, it is hoped that construction practices can become more uniform and adhere to prevailing norms. This is essential to ensure that the buildings constructed meet safety and comfort criteria for their occupants and support consistency in architectural design across various regions. Therefore, the building height can be calculated as follows:

$$Buildingheight=Numberoffloors\times 2.8\mathrm{m}$$

These calculations ensure that building designs adhere to established regulations, promoting safety and structural integrity within urban planning frameworks.

The integration of SFH-UFH within the 2D map facilitates the acquisition of a comprehensive three-dimensional visualization, thereby providing insights into the utilization of spatial dimensions and the ramifications of irregularities in spatial configuration. It is noteworthy that the present investigation excludes the consideration of vertical aspects. If S-UFH is applied in Cibatu village based on LU/LC Figure 10 and Figure 11. The 3D visualization of land rights in Cibatu is crucial for understanding the distribution and categories of land tenure, which have implications for urban planning, land management, and community development. By depicting rights to build, ownership, use, endowment, and national land, this analysis aids city planners in making informed zoning and infrastructure decisions. Additionally, visualization can identify potential conflicts among different users, support sustainable land use practices, and highlight data gaps that need to be addressed for more comprehensive planning. Thus, a deep understanding of land rights is essential for promoting equitable and sustainable development in Cibatu.

3. Results

3.1. The SFH in Bekasi Regency

The results displayed from this analysis show the SFH profile in Bekasi Regency, obtained through the process of subtracting the DSM from the DTM. Meanwhile, the DTM is obtained from the contour elevation values provided by the RBI topographic maps.

The profile map displayed in Figure 12 begins with a red circular marker and ends with a blue one. This profile provides important insight into the elevation variations in Bekasi Regency, reflecting the value of DSM minus the value of DTM, illustrating the actual height of objects. The results of this profile map can be utilized for spatial planning and infrastructure development, as well as assisting in determining the optimal vertical limits for construction.

The results from the profile are in Figure 13, which shows the variation and average of the SFH data, clearly illustrating the fluctuations in object height. By presenting this profile, the average height of objects can be determined, which can serve as a consideration in establishing their vertical limits. This analysis aids in land use planning and ensures that infrastructure development aligns with the existing topographical conditions.

In the context of development increasingly focused on vertical growth, the importance of utilizing 3D cadastre becomes evident. The data derived from the DSM and DTM graphs indicate significant elevation variations in the analyzed area. This variation not only reflects the topographic conditions but also indicates the presence of surface features that can influence building design and construction. With the rising demand for space, particularly in urban areas, 3D cadastre can provide more accurate information regarding the available space, both above and below ground. Furthermore, analyzing the differences between DSM and DTM allows for the determination of optimal vertical boundaries for construction, ensuring that developments align with real-world conditions while minimizing risks and maximizing land use efficiency. The integration of a 3D cadastre will facilitate better decision-making in urban planning and contribute to sustainable development practices.

The profile of the Bekasi Regency area, illustrating surface feature height (SFH), provides important insights for determining vertical boundaries in the context of a 3D cadastre. The five elevation profiles displayed show variations in elevation that are important for the management of vertical space and land use in Bekasi District. Each profile reflects topographic characteristics that may influence the type of land use present. Areas with high elevations indicate land use for residential, commercial, and industrial, as they are more accessible and have a lower risk of inundation. In contrast, areas with low elevations are used for agricultural land, parks, or green open spaces.

To determine the vertical height limit to be used in the construction of right-of-way for 3D cadastre, it is not enough to understand surface feature height. It is important to divide the area by LU/LC to know the use of height in each land classification. This division allows the identification of appropriate vertical boundaries for each type of land use. For example, residential areas require higher vertical boundaries to accommodate the construction of high-rise buildings, while agricultural areas have lower boundaries to maintain the function of the land.

Knowledge of land use and appropriate vertical boundaries is essential to prevent land use conflicts that can arise from unplanned development. Thus, the integration of elevation data and land use classification into the vertical space management system is crucial. This not only supports efficient infrastructure development but also helps maintain environmental sustainability and the quality of life of the people in Bekasi District.

3.2. SFH Based on LU/LC

In this section, a graphical representation of SFH categorized by LU/LC in Bekasi Regency will be presented (Figure 14, Figure 15, Figure 16, Figure 17 and Figure 18). This analysis aims to illustrate the relationship between variations in object height and land utilization, highlighting how different land classifications impact surface elevations. From this illustration, we can determine the variations and average heights of objects for each type of land cover. By visualizing these data, our understanding of the spatial dynamics in the region can be enhanced, thereby supporting informed decision-making regarding land management and urban planning. The graphs presented show variations in elevation along different latitudes, with significant differences depending on the type of land use. Although there are many land use classifications in Figure 3, this study emphasizes three dominant categories in the study area: industrial, residential, and agricultural. The selection of these categories is based on their dominance in the region, making them more relevant for further analysis. For example, industrial areas tend to exhibit more significant fluctuations in height compared to residential and agricultural areas. This analysis provides valuable insights into how topographical characteristics relate to different land uses.

The elevation analysis from Profiles 1 to 5 shows significant variations in topography and land use in the area. In Profile 1, the industrial area is situated at an average height of 55 m, followed by the residential zone, which is close to 0 m, and the agricultural area, which is at −20 m. Profile 2 indicates that the industrial height is around 10–15 m, with residential areas remaining near 0 m, while the agricultural land is at −10 m. Profiles 3 and 4 highlight a consistent agricultural elevation of −5 m, with no detected residential areas. In Profile 5, residential land is at a height of 5 m, while the industrial area shows a higher elevation of 15 m.

Overall, this analysis underscores the relationship between land use and topography, where industrial areas tend to be at higher elevations compared to residential and agricultural areas, which are in lower-lying regions. In conclusion, the average elevations for each land use type are industrial ranging from 10 to 55 m, residential about 0 to 5 m, and agricultural areas between −20 and −5 m. These elevation differences reflect various geographic characteristics and land management practices, as well as how topography can influence infrastructure development and land use in the region.

3.3. LU/LC SFH Modelling

In the modeling of LU/LC SFH, the data used include land cover classification data, land rights data, literature data, supporting regulatory data, and existing condition data. The process begins with the collection and classification of data to identify types of land cover and determine the relationship between land use and surface elevation, ultimately resulting in the height of objects based on land cover. Subsequently, height limits for each type of LU/LC are established based on applicable regulations. The results of this modeling include 3D visualizations of land rights and a comparison of LU/LC SFH between KDB regulations and existing conditions, providing an overview of the rights and responsibilities associated with land use.

The height of each LU/LC type varies between factual data, regulatory frameworks, and extant literature (Figure 19 and Figure 20). Extant literature exclusively stipulates the minimum reference, while the maximum limit remains unspecified. This discrepancy is attributable to the divergent regulatory frameworks and geographical conditions characteristic of each nation. Nevertheless, these limits are imperative for the supervision and control of spatial planning and the establishment of policies in diverse developmental sectors.

The determination of height limits for each type of LU/LC and each type of land parcel right has an impact on the certainty of an individual’s right to space limits and responsibilities. As previously stated, the land value and property tax regulations stipulate the categorization of rights pertaining to a parcel of land. This categorization comprises three distinct categories: the space of parcel rights, delineating the boundaries of the land parcel; the space of building rights, encompassing structures above or below the land parcel; and the space of strata title, which encompasses rights over units of objects that are part of the space of the main building.

In the context of urban space regulation, the analysis of the existing conditions of multi-story buildings in Bekasi Regency (Figure 21) reveals a variety of utilities related to rights and responsibilities that must be considered. Each high-rise building not only serves as a physical space but also as an entity that has a broad impact on urban space management. Therefore, regulations regarding land value and property taxes become an important aspect of monitoring and controlling the use of these spaces.

In the effort to convert cadastral maps from 2D to 3D formats, a systematic approach to the height boundaries of rights spaces is essential. Each utility can be defined as a different rights space, reflecting the complexity of land utilization. There are three types of rights spaces that need to be considered: strata title right space, building right space, and land parcel right space (Figure 22). The strata Title right space depicts the rights to units within multi-story buildings, granting individual ownership of specific areas within the structure. The building right space encompasses the rights to manage and develop the building itself, which includes responsibilities for maintenance and space usage. Meanwhile, the land parcel right space indicates the rights to the land underlying the building, serving as a basis for tax calculation and land use regulation. The importance of this regulation lies in the effort to ensure that each utility within high-rise buildings can function optimally without conflicts between existing rights.

Therefore, the vertical space boundaries must be clearly defined. This can be explained by regulations regarding the building coverage ratio (KDB). There is a comparison of KDB among various cities, as shown in Table 1. The table displays the KDB percentages for different types of land use in Bekasi, Bandung, Surabaya, and other cities. For example, for land use such as flats or apartments, the KDB in Bekasi is 50%, while in Bandung and Surabaya, it is 40% and 48%, respectively. This reflects the differences in spatial planning policies and demographic characteristics in each city. In Bekasi, which is experiencing rapid urbanization, a higher KDB is set to support housing needs. Meanwhile, Bandung, with a focus on preserving green areas, implements a lower KDB to maintain environmental balance. Surabaya, which has complex urban characteristics, chooses a KDB that falls between the two cities. Furthermore, for commercial and service land use, KDB varies, with Bekasi having a maximum of 50%, Bandung 60%, and Surabaya 55%. These differences indicate that each city has a unique approach to economic development. For instance, Bandung’s higher KDB in the commercial sector reflects its intention to encourage local business growth. On the other hand, Bekasi and Surabaya must consider the existing infrastructure capacity and population density. As for industrial areas, the KDB in Bekasi is 60%, indicating that 60% of the total land area can be used for buildings. In Bandung, the KDB for industrial areas is lower, at 50%, while in Surabaya, it is 60%, reflecting the need to support the significant industrial sector in both Bekasi and Surabaya.

Understanding KDB and the comparison between cities highlights the importance of defining vertical rights limits in accordance with LU/LC. This understanding allows for the establishment of clear vertical rights boundaries, ensuring that development aligns with the characteristics of each area and existing regulations. Such definitions optimize land use, particularly in rapidly urbanizing areas, enabling the fulfillment of housing and infrastructure needs without sacrificing public space. Additionally, understanding KDB in the context of LU/LC supports effective spatial planning policies, promoting economic growth while maintaining environmental balance. With clear vertical rights boundaries, communities can become more involved in the planning process, ensuring that their interests are accommodated in land development.

To define vertical rights limits according to LU/LC, an inventory of SFH is conducted in three major cities in Indonesia: Bandung, Surabaya, and Bekasi, alongside the implementation of height determination regulations in each of these areas. As a further step in defining vertical rights limits according to LU/LC, a comparative analysis between KDB regulations and existing conditions has been conducted. Figure 23 illustrates the comparison of building heights regulated for various land use types, namely residential, commercial, and industrial, in three major cities in Indonesia: Bandung, Surabaya, and Bekasi. Through this visualization, the differences between the recommended building heights in the regulations and the actual conditions in each area become apparent.

Figure 23 shows a comparison between the building height values based on regulation and existing conditions for various land use types (LU/LC), such as industrial, commercial, and residential. For residential areas, the established building height is 48 m in Bekasi City, 30 m in Bandung City, 24 m in Surabaya City, and 24 m in Bekasi Regency. Meanwhile, for industrial use, the allowed building height is 9 m across all mentioned cities, and for commercial use, the building height reaches 24 m in Bekasi City and Bandung City, as well as 10 m in Surabaya City and Bekasi Regency. However, in this graph, only the lowest values from each LU/LC are plotted, providing a conservative view of the building height limitations.

Furthermore, the adjusted height is established by accommodating the existing building heights, creating realistic limits based on field conditions. This reflects spatial planning policies that consider the building permits that have been issued, including Building Construction Permits (IMBs). The adjusted height for industrial use is 40 m, referencing the highest industrial building height in Bandung City. For commercial use, the adjusted height is set at 45 m based on the highest commercial building height in Bekasi Regency, and for residential use, the adjusted height is 35 m, based on the highest residential building height in Bandung City. These figures are derived from the surface height feature (SFH) obtained from the digital surface model (DSM) minus the digital terrain model (DTM), referred to as the existing height value. The existing height values for residential areas in Bekasi City range from 0 to 16 m, in Bandung City from 0 to 33 m, in Surabaya City from 0 to 10 m, and in Bekasi Regency from 0 to 5 m. For industrial use, the existing heights in Bekasi City reach 0 to 25 m, in Bandung City from 0 to 40 m, in Surabaya City from 0 to 8 m, and in Bekasi Regency from 0 to 25 m. For commercial use, the existing heights in Bekasi City range from 0 to 14 m, in Bandung City from 0 to 20 m, in Surabaya City from 0 to 8 m, and in Bekasi Regency from 0 to 45 m. This analysis indicates that all existing LU/LCs are lower than the established adjusted heights, reflecting compliance with the applicable regulations.

4. Discussion

The SFH position in Bekasi Regency indicates significant development potential within the context of urbanization. The SFH in this area reflects existing building heights, which influence spatial planning and land use. Primarily influenced by building heights that impact spatial planning and land use. In the residential sector, existing building heights (0–5 m) are significantly lower than Bekasi City (0 to 16 m), Bandung City (0 to 33 m), and Surabaya City (0 to 10 m), indicating opportunities for vertical expansion. However, limited infrastructure and public facilities have hindered this growth. For industrial zones in Bekasi Regency, with building heights reaching 25 m, lower behind Bandung City (up to 40 m). This makes the area less attractive to industrial investors seeking greater expansion opportunities, which in turn can impact economic growth and tax revenue. On the other hand, the commercial sector shows promising potential, with building heights reaching 45 m, surpassing those of Bekasi City and Surabaya. This makes it a strategic location for business and commercial development. However, stricter building height regulations in Bekasi Regency for residential and commercial uses, compared to cities like Bekasi and Bandung, may limit development opportunities.

The position of building heights in Bekasi Regency, based on regulatory heights, indicates stricter limitations on residential and commercial development compared to Bekasi City, Bandung City, and Surabaya City. For residential land use, Bekasi Regency has a building height limit of 24 m, equal to Surabaya City, but significantly lower than Bekasi City’s limit of 48 m. This suggests that Bekasi Regency faces more stringent regulations regarding residential development. In the industrial sector, all cities, including Bekasi Regency, have a uniform building height limit of 9 m. However, for commercial land use, both Bekasi Regency and Surabaya City are limited to heights of 10 m, while Bekasi City and Bandung City are allowed up to 24 m.

This analysis employs a deviation calculation framework to assess building height regulations across various land use categories in selected cities and regencies. The primary objective is to determine discrepancies between established regulatory heights and existing tallest structures within the residential, industrial, and commercial sectors. Using three distinct deviation schemes, comparing regulatory heights to existing heights, measuring differences between the lowest regulatory heights and existing heights, and considering adjusted heights, this study provides insights into potential development opportunities and regulatory compliance.

Figure 24 illustrates three graphs examining the residential, industrial, and commercial areas in Bekasi City, Surabaya City, Bandung City, and Bekasi Regency. Deviations in the residential area indicate significant growth potential in Bekasi City (+32 m), Surabaya City (+14 m), and Bekasi Regency (+19 m), while Bandung City faces development challenges (−3 m). In the industrial sector, deviation analysis reveals varying outcomes, with Bekasi City and Bekasi Regency experiencing constraints (−16 m), Bandung City facing significant setbacks (−31 m), and Surabaya City showing promising growth potential (+32 m). Regarding commercial areas, positive deviations are noted in Bekasi City (+10 m), Bandung City (+4 m), and Surabaya City (+2 m), whereas Bekasi Regency faces substantial challenges (−35 m).

The methodology for determining vertical construction limits in Bekasi Regency considers existing heights plus deviation values. Based on regulatory assessments, the maximum vertical limits are established as follows: for residential areas, the maximum height limit is 24 m; for industrial areas, it is 9 m; and for commercial areas, it is 10 m. These findings emphasize the important role of LU/LC dynamics in regional development planning and strategic space management.

The analysis of vertical development in Bekasi Regency and surrounding cities indicates that Bekasi City and Bandung City have the most significant potential for development, particularly in the residential and industrial sectors. Bekasi City has an existing height for residential areas of 0 to 16 m, with high development potential (+32 m). For industrial areas, despite a height limit of 25 m, there is a negative deviation (−16 m). Bandung City shows an existing height of up to 33 m for residential areas with a small negative deviation (−3 m), while for industrial areas, the height reaches 40 m but faces a significant negative deviation (−31 m). Conversely, Bekasi Regency has existing heights for residential areas at 0 to 5 m with a positive deviation (+19 m), indicating substantial development opportunities, although the height limit for commercial areas remains low at 10 m.

The analysis reveals that vertical boundaries in many areas closely align with regulatory heights, enabling adjustments without significant changes. Positive deviations in residential sectors highlight opportunities for vertical development, whereas negative deviations in industrial areas underscore the importance of adhering to height limits to avoid violations. These deviations suggest that urban planners can adopt flexible approaches to support future developments while ensuring regulatory compliance. Furthermore, comparing three types of deviations across LU/LC categories identifies optimal alignment between regulatory frameworks and existing heights, promoting harmony and reducing potential conflicts. However, this approach is less favorable in terms of local fiscal income compared to alternative deviation strategies.

Height limit regulations for land use/land cover (LU/LC) on land parcels enable the creation of 3D cadastral maps, providing an accurate representation of parcel, building, and unit right spaces (strata title). By defining title spaces, these regulations clarify rights, responsibilities, and restrictions in three-dimensional spatial planning. Parcels with multiple buildings are assigned distinct unit right spaces based on their functions, and a parcel’s right space is determined by the maximum space rights of its building. This delineation supports accurate property tax assessment, incorporating tax value, incentives, and penalties, while documenting public spaces, including those within buildings. Height limits for LU/LC zones—industrial, commercial, residential, and strata title—are strictly regulated, emphasizing the need for optimized spatial planning to effectively utilize 3D space. The cadastral organization provides the foundation for 3D cadastral maps, focusing on visualizing main rights, while the broader cadastral domain encompasses ownership, building use, lease rights, and urban planning considerations. The implementation of LU/LC achieves its objectives by integrating land rights and spatial planning, deriving height aspects based on the KDB and KLB frameworks.

Figure 25 illustrates three types of deviations from regulations on rights space based on land use, showing a mix of land uses such as residential, strata title, and commercial buildings. Definitions should refer to land and rights according to KLB and KDB, focusing on land boundaries and existing spatial planning suitability. For example, green areas indicate industrial use, while red areas represent commercial use. Evaluating land suitability is essential, especially when commercial buildings within industrial areas exceed established height limits. The cadastral domain emphasizes physical boundaries, while cadasters focus on the rights held, making LU/LC crucial for tax determination based on appropriate land use.

However, this research faces data limitations, including the spatial accuracy of DSM, the resolution of DTM, and inconsistencies in land use data from OpenStreetMap. Vertical rights, such as strata title, lack detail, and parameters like KDB and KLB are outdated and inconsistent across regions. Current approaches overlook social and environmental factors and require broader testing. Future research should improve data accuracy, establish clear regulations for vertical rights, and integrate diverse factors to enhance 3D cadastral mapping and spatial planning.

5. Conclusions

Based on the analysis of building heights according to land use/land cover (LU/LC), the applicable building heights in Bekasi Regency indicate significant development potential. For the residential sector, with a positive deviation (+19 m), the maximum applicable height reaches 24 m, which is lower compared to Bekasi City (up to 48 m) and Bandung City (up to 30 m). In the industrial sector, there are buildings that reach a maximum height of 25 m, compared to Bandung City, which has a higher limit of up to 40 m; however, the applicable regulatory limit is only 9 m, indicating challenges in attracting investment. In the commercial sector, the maximum height in Bekasi Regency can reach 45 m, but the low regulatory limit of 10 m restricts further development.

Based on the analysis of building heights according to regulations among Bekasi City, Bandung City, and Bekasi Regency, it can be concluded that Bekasi City is more adequate and represents the current existing conditions with the smallest deviation, especially in the residential sector. This indicates that Bekasi City has greater flexibility in vertical development, while Bekasi Regency needs to re-evaluate building height regulations to maximize its development potential.

6. Recommendations

The results of this research are expected to be applicable throughout Indonesia, not just at the local level. It is important to establish a national framework for land use classification (LU/LC) and related regulations that are uniform across different regions. This standardization will ensure a coherent approach to vertical development, facilitate coordination between local governments, and promote sustainable development practices. Thus, the implementation of these recommendations can enhance the quality of urban life, support economic growth, and maintain environmental sustainability in Indonesia. The implementation of a 3D cadastre will significantly influence better decision-making in land-use planning and development. With improved visualization of vertical boundaries and land rights, policymakers can create more accurate and effective regulations. This will reduce land-use conflicts and optimize space utilization, thus promoting sustainable development practices.

Recommendations for Bekasi Regency include improving infrastructure and public facilities to support vertical development, as well as adopting flexible development permit policies and tax incentives for developers. Meanwhile, for Bandung City and Bekasi, stricter regulations should be established for construction exceeding the height limits, including additional taxes for properties that violate these limits. These measures will support the effective management of vertical development and enhance the quality of life for residents in both cities. So, the implementation of these recommendations will not only support economic growth but also maintain environmental sustainability in Indonesia.