Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Textural Properties of the Lower Globigerina Limestone Used in the Built Heritage
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Utilization of Lower Globigerina Limestone in Buildings
1.2. Aims of the Study
2. Geological Setting
2.1. General Lithostratigraphy
2.2. Lithostratigraphic Outline of LGL
2.3. Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Texture of LGL
2.4. Terminology Associated with LGL Used in the Building Trade
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Sampling
3.2. Characterization Techniques
4. Results
4.1. Geochemistry
4.2. Mineralogy
4.3. Texture
4.3.1. Optical Microscopy
4.3.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy and Porosimetry
4.4. Petrophysical Properties
5. Discussion
5.1. Lithology
5.2. Compressive Strength
5.3. Porosity
5.4. Weathering
5.5. Color
5.6. Bioturbation
6. Conclusions
- IR content is indicative of the quality of LGL
- 2.
- Bioturbation is a reliable method to assess the quality LGL
- 3.
- First-quality LGL is more porous than inferior lithotypes
- 4.
- Other correlations
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Formation | Member | Age | Thickness (t) (m) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Malta | Gozo and Comino | |||
Upper Coralline Limestone | Ġebel Imbark | Messinian | 04 ≤ t ≤ 25 | 04 ≤ t ≤ 20 |
Tal-Pitkal | Tortonian to Messinian | 30 ≤ t ≤ 50 | 01 ≤ t ≤ 30 | |
Mtarfa | Tortonian | 12 ≤ t ≤ 16 | 02 ≤ t ≤ 16 | |
Għajn Melel | Tortonian | 00 ≤ t ≤ 13 | 00 ≤ t ≤ 16 | |
Greensand | Tortonian | 00 ≤ t ≤ 11 | ||
Blue Clay | Serravallian to Tortonian | 15 ≤ t ≤ 75 | 18 ≤ t ≤ 75 | |
Globigerina Limestone | Upper Globigerina Limestone | Langhian | 08 ≤ t ≤ 26 | 02 ≤ t ≤ 15 |
Middle Globigerina Limestone | Aquitanian to Burdigalian | 15 ≤ t ≤ 38 | 00 ≤ t ≤ 15 | |
Lower Globigerina Limestone | Aquitanian | 00 ≤ t ≤ 80 | 05 ≤ t ≤ 40 | |
Lower Coralline Limestone | Il-Mara | Chattian | 00 ≤ t ≤ 20 | 00 ≤ t ≤ 06 |
Xlendi | Chattian | 00 ≤ t ≤ 22 | 00 ≤ t ≤ 22 | |
Attard | Chattian | 10 ≤ t ≤ 15 | 10 ≤ t ≤ 15 | |
Magħlaq | Chattian | t > 38 | t unknown |
Bed No. | Thickness (m) | Limestone Quality | Sample ID | Position * (m) | Depth ** (m) | Description | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Quarry Face | Hand Specimen | ||||||
1 | 1.1 | first | Q1_1 1 | 00.0 | 0.04 | Burrows and occasional nodules are present. | Pale yellow in color; Burrows: 10% of the rock sample with diameter c. 3 mm; cream in color; sample had two dark yellow “iron stained” nodules. |
2 | 0.2 | first | Q1_2 1 | 01.1 | 1.2 | Burrows dark brown and fine grained. | Pale yellow in color; Burrows: light brown in color. |
3 | 1.3 | first | Q1_31 | 01.3 | 2.2 | A few burrows with “iron stained” infill. | Pale to brown yellow; Burrows: with “iron stained” infill. |
4 | 0.6 | first | 02.6 | ||||
5 | 1.7 | second | Q1_4 1 | 03.2 | 3.8 | Dark, heavily infilled, burrows with occasional red-brownish stains. | Cream colored, with shell fragments; Burrows: white infill with darker cream to yellow material surrounding them. |
6 | 4.4 | first | Q1_5 | 04.9 | 7.1 | Occasional burrows with infill identical to host rock. | Pale to cream yellow in color. |
7 | 1.2 | second | Q1_6 1 | 09.3 | 10.2 | Burrows progressively decreasing. | Pale yellow in color with shell fragments; Burrows: cream-colored infill. |
8 | 1.5 | first | Q1_7 | 10.5 | 11.3 | Burrows rarely present; increase towards the top of the bed. | White in color; Burrows: diameter >18 mm, with pale brown infill. |
9 | 3.0 | second | Q1_8 2 | 12.0 | 13.1 | Darker burrow infill decreasing towards the top of the bed. | White in color with some shell fragments; Burrows: brown and dark green/grey in color with occasional “iron stained” infill. |
9 | 3.0 | second | Q1_9 1 | 12.0 | 14.2 | As Q1_8. | White in color with even whiter burrow infill. |
10 | 4.3 | first | Q1_10 | 15.0 | 18.0 | No evidence of burrows. | Pale yellow in color with occasional shell fragments. |
11 | 3.2 | first | Q1_11 2 | 19.3 | 20.7 | Though not heavily burrowed; quality is deteriorating upwards. | Pale yellow in color; Burrows: dark infill. |
Q1_12 | 19.3 | 21.7 | |||||
12 | 6.0 | first | Q1_13 | 22.5 | 25.3 | Sharp contact between host rock and burrows. | Pale yellow in color with shell fragments; Burrows: compact, cream yellow to dark green/grey infill. |
12 | 6.0 | first | Q1_14 2 | 22.5 | 28.1 | Density of burrows increases up in the bed. | Pale yellow in color; Burrows: compact, cream yellow infill rich in shell fragments. |
13 | 3.3 | first | Q1_15 | 28.5 | 30.8 | As per bed 12. | Cream colored with shell fragments; Burrows: two (10 and 12 mm in diameter) with cream-colored infill. |
13 | 3.3 | first | Q1_16 | 28.5 | 31.7 | As per bed 12. | Cream-colored, weathered specimen rich in shell fragments; Burrows are present. |
Sample ID | LOI | X-ray Fluorescence Analysis | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CaO | SiO2 | Al2O3 | MgO | Fe2O3 | K2O | P2O5 | TiO2 | Na2O | MnO | ||
Q1_1 1 | 41.37 | 49.389 | 07.954 | 01.288 | 01.176 | 00.739 | 00.425 | 00.220 | 00.184 | 00.037 | 00.032 |
Q1_2 1 | 41.72 | 49.668 | 06.767 | 01.062 | 01.142 | 00.595 | 00.356 | 00.211 | 00.151 | 00.042 | 00.033 |
Q1_3 1 | 42.24 | 50.044 | 05.516 | 00.806 | 01.113 | 00.498 | 00.278 | 00.204 | 00.122 | 00.025 | 00.035 |
Q1_4 1 | 40.43 | 48.165 | 09.695 | 01.388 | 01.140 | 01.038 | 00.512 | 00.300 | 00.221 | 00.057 | 00.036 |
Q1_5 | 41.49 | 49.245 | 07.021 | 00.856 | 00.988 | 00.652 | 00.360 | 00.243 | 00.148 | 00.062 | 00.034 |
Q1_6 1 | 39.43 | 46.651 | 11.985 | 01.615 | 01.157 | 00.978 | 00.634 | 00.258 | 00.258 | 00.090 | 00.033 |
Q1_7 | 41.44 | 48.778 | 07.218 | 00.919 | 01.189 | 00.742 | 00.370 | 00.285 | 00.128 | 00.066 | 00.034 |
Q1_8 2 | 41.75 | 49.577 | 06.506 | 00.838 | 01.173 | 00.822 | 00.369 | 00.707 | 00.117 | 00.055 | 00.035 |
Q1_9 1 | 42.18 | 49.671 | 06.329 | 00.856 | 01.137 | 00.649 | 00.332 | 00.310 | 00.107 | 00.058 | 00.034 |
Q1_10 | 42.60 | 50.088 | 04.847 | 00.584 | 00.989 | 00.450 | 00.224 | 00.218 | 00.083 | 00.065 | 00.032 |
Q1_11 2 | 42.81 | 50.222 | 04.272 | 00.434 | 00.719 | 00.317 | 00.185 | 00.186 | 00.070 | 00.071 | 00.036 |
Q1_12 | 42.83 | 49.619 | 04.054 | 00.398 | 00.994 | 00.420 | 00.171 | 00.546 | 00.067 | 00.084 | 00.035 |
Q1_13 | 42.57 | 49.772 | 04.452 | 00.434 | 01.116 | 00.367 | 00.194 | 00.576 | 00.075 | 00.073 | 00.034 |
Q1_14 2 | 42.01 | 48.789 | 05.094 | 00.513 | 01.172 | 00.633 | 00.251 | 01.080 | 00.084 | 00.141 | 00.036 |
Q1_15 | 41.27 | 48.545 | 06.801 | 00.726 | 01.180 | 00.781 | 00.304 | 01.121 | 00.124 | 00.114 | 00.037 |
Q1_16 | 41.87 | 49.435 | 06.109 | 00.651 | 01.133 | 00.656 | 00.281 | 00.952 | 00.097 | 00.037 | 00.036 |
Sample ID | IR (%) | X-ray Diffraction Analysis 1 | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Whole Rock | IR | Clay Fraction | |||||||||||||||
cal | qtz | qtz | Kfs | ms | kln | ill | sme | gp | al | rt | kln | ill | sme | qtz | Kfs | ||
Q1_1 1 | 06.1 | x | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | |||||
Q1_2 1 | 04.8 | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ||||||
Q1_3 1 | 03.6 | x | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | |||||
Q1_4 1 | 08.2 | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ||||||
Q1_5 | 05.9 | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | ||||||
Q1_6 1 | 11.3 | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | ||||||
Q1_7 | 05.7 | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | ||||||
Q1_8 2 | 04.6 | x | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | |||||
Q1_9 1 | 04.7 | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | ||||||
Q1_10 | 03.3 | x | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | |||||
Q1_11 2 | 02.8 | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ||||||
Q1_12 | 02.6 | x | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | |||||
Q1_13 | 03.1 | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | |||||
Q1_14 2 | 03.8 | x | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | |||||
Q1_15 | 05.4 | x | x | x | x | x | x | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | |||||
Q1_16 | 04.3 | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
Characteristics | Sample ID 1 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Old Church, Birkirkara | Mqabba Quarry | ||||
C1 | C2 | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | |
Matrix | 80 | 75 | 80 | 70 | 65 |
Allochems | 20 | 25 | 20 | 30 | 35 2 |
Terrigenous components | single; sizes < 0.1 mm | sparodic; sizes < 0.08 mm | rare | rare | rare |
Classification | wackestone | wackestone | wackestone | wackestone | wackestone |
Sample ID | Total Volume | Volume in Pores (cm3/g) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Pore Radius >40,000Å | Pore Radius 40–40,000Å | Pore Radius <40Å | ||
Q1_2 1 | 0.1097 | 0.0018 | 0.1071 | 0.0008 |
Q1_4 1 | 0.0923 | 0.0001 | 0.0898 | 0.0024 |
Q1_6 1 | 0.0893 | 0.0068 | 0.0821 | 0.0004 |
Q1_9 1 | 0.1092 | 0.0011 | 0.1072 | 0.0009 |
Q1_11 | 0.0600 | 0.0001 | 0.0593 | 0.0006 |
Q1_13 | 0.0917 | 0.0112 | 0.0803 | 0.0002 |
Q1_14 | 0.1084 | 0.0112 | 0.0960 | 0.0012 |
Sample ID | Apparent Density (kg/m3) | CS (N/mm2) | UPV (km/s) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Oven Dried | Saturated | Oven Dried | Saturated | Perpendicular | Parallel | |
Q1_2 1 | 1778 | 2016 | 30.18 | 15.42 | 3.06 | 2.99 |
Q1_4 1 | 1844 | 2068 | 28.83 | 12.89 | 2.91 | 2.97 |
Q1_6 1 | 1844 | 2067 | 25.30 | 15.26 | 2.98 | 2.99 |
Q1_9 1 | 1719 | 1954 | 21.82 | 15.09 | 2.91 | 2.86 |
Q1_11 | 1717 | 1949 | 15.58 | 08.27 | 2.69 | 2.71 |
Q1_13 | 1784 | 1975 | 27.88 | 17.43 | 3.22 | 3.11 |
Q1_14 | 1787 | 1999 | 22.54 | 16.95 | 3.07 | 2.94 |
Sample ID | Wavelength (nm) | Purity (%) | Brightness (%) | Filter Value | L * | a ** | b *** | Eab # | Eab *## | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Red (x) | Green (y) | Blue (z) | |||||||||
Q1_1 | 581 | 75 | 70.5 | 72.5 | 75.3 | 61.2 | 89.54 | −5.70 | 12.14 | 137.85 | 3.57 |
Q1_2 | 581 | 75 | 71.5 | 73.9 | 76.5 | 63.3 | 90.10 | −5.24 | 11.18 | 138.06 | 3.36 |
Q1_3 | 582 | 75 | 71.7 | 74.3 | 76.8 | 63.8 | 90.24 | −5.02 | 10.97 | 138.02 | 3.40 |
Q1_4 | 580 | 75 | 69.1 | 70.4 | 73.8 | 57.0 | 88.84 | −7.04 | 14.90 | 137.20 | 4.22 |
Q1_5 | 580 | 75 | 72.7 | 75.0 | 77.7 | 63.3 | 90.65 | −5.38 | 12.13 | 137.53 | 3.89 |
Q1_6 | 580 | 75 | 69.8 | 71.6 | 74.6 | 59.5 | 89.22 | −6.16 | 13.16 | 137.57 | 3.85 |
Q1_7 | 582 | 75 | 71.3 | 73.6 | 76.4 | 62.1 | 90.05 | −5.65 | 12.19 | 137.73 | 3.69 |
Q1_8 | 582 | 75 | 71.4 | 73.6 | 76.5 | 62.2 | 90.10 | −5.85 | 12.18 | 137.89 | 3.53 |
Q1_9 | 582 | 75 | 73.2 | 75.6 | 78.2 | 65.1 | 90.88 | −5.16 | 10.91 | 138.12 | 3.30 |
Q1_10 | 582 | 73 | 75.3 | 78.9 | 80.6 | 69.1 | 91.96 | −3.29 | 09.30 | 137.70 | 3.72 |
Q1_11 | 582 | 73 | 77.6 | 81.1 | 83.0 | 72.0 | 93.02 | −3.61 | 08.69 | 138.28 | 3.14 |
Q1_12 | 582 | 75 | 74.4 | 77.2 | 79.6 | 67.1 | 91.51 | −4.70 | 10.25 | 138.16 | 3.26 |
Q1_13 | 582 | 75 | 74.2 | 77.4 | 79.3 | 67.8 | 91.38 | −3.72 | 09.41 | 137.98 | 3.44 |
Q1_14 | 582 | 75 | 70.4 | 72.4 | 75.6 | 60.6 | 89.68 | −6.51 | 12.94 | 137.95 | 3.47 |
Q1_15 | 580 | 75 | 69.3 | 71.2 | 74.2 | 58.8 | 89.03 | −6.18 | 13.50 | 137.39 | 4.03 |
Q1_16 | 580 | 75 | 71.2 | 73.4 | 75.8 | 61.0 | 89.78 | −4.86 | 12.73 | 136.81 | 4.61 |
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Bianco, L. Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Textural Properties of the Lower Globigerina Limestone Used in the Built Heritage. Minerals 2021, 11, 740. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11070740
Bianco L. Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Textural Properties of the Lower Globigerina Limestone Used in the Built Heritage. Minerals. 2021; 11(7):740. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11070740
Chicago/Turabian StyleBianco, Lino. 2021. "Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Textural Properties of the Lower Globigerina Limestone Used in the Built Heritage" Minerals 11, no. 7: 740. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11070740