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Article

Petrogenesis of the Dalaku’an Mafic–Ultramafic Intrusion in the East Kunlun, Xinjiang: Constraints from the Mineralogy of Amphiboles

by
Yazhou Fan
1,*,
Yali Deng
1,
Zhaode Xia
2,3,
Minghao Ren
1,* and
Jianhan Huang
1
1
College of Geosciences and Engineering, North China University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Zhengzhou 450046, China
2
College of Earth Science and Resources, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710054, China
3
Key Laboratory of Western China’s Mineral Resources and Geological Engineering, Ministry of Education, Xi’an 710054, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2024, 14(7), 651; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070651
Submission received: 20 May 2024 / Revised: 16 June 2024 / Accepted: 21 June 2024 / Published: 26 June 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes)
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Abstract

:
The Dalaku’an mafic–ultramafic intrusion, located in the western segment of the East Kunlun, presents conducive conditions for the magmatic Cu-Ni sulfide deposits. According to the detailed petrographic observation, the amphiboles within distinct rock types were analyzed by EPMA analysis. The crystallization conditions, such as temperature, pressure, oxygen fugacity, and water content of the magma, were calculated to explore the genesis of the intrusion. The amphiboles were divided into three types: Amp-I, characterized by low silicon content but enrichment of aluminum, titanium, and alkali, predominantly comprising Tschermakitic hornblende and Magnesio-hornblende with mantle-derived traits; Amp-II, exhibiting elevated silicon content but diminished levels of aluminum, titanium, and alkali, primarily constituted of Magnesio-hornblende; whereas Amp-III manifests as Actinolitic hornblende, indicative of crustal origins. The calculated temperatures of amphiboles ranged between Amp-I (955–880) °C, Amp-II (852–774) °C, and Amp-III (761–760) °C; the pressures ranged between Amp-I (454–274) MPa, Amp-II (194–93) MPa, and Amp-III (101–84) MPa; the oxygen fugacities (△NNO) ranged between Amp-I (0.93–2.17), Amp-II (1.55–2.52), and Amp-III (1.89); and the water contents (H2Omelt) ranged from (6.69–8.67) to (5.90–7.32). The magma experienced multiple stages of crystallization and underwent complex magma evolution at different depths. The high oxygen fugacity and water content could be attributed to the subduction of the oceanic crust. The magma source of the Dalaku’an intrusion was metasomatized by fluids from subducting plates, thereby originating within a post-collision extension.

1. Introduction

Mafic–ultramafic intrusions in convergent margin settings have been extensively studied, including the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, East Kunlun Orogenic Belt, Appalachian Orogen, and Variscan Orogenic Belt [1]. Despite the widespread distribution of mafic–ultramafic rocks, only a few of them host sulfide mineralization. The East Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB) is an important polymetallic mineralization belt in China [2], which extends for approximately 1500 km long in the northern part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, bounded by the NE–SW trending Altyn Tagh fault to the west and the Qinling Orogenic Belt to the northeast [3]. The Qaidam Block and Bayan Har-Qiangtang Block occur in the north and south, respectively [2,3] (Figure 1a). The mafic–ultramafic rocks widespread in the EKOB are classified into two groups that are distinguished according to their emplacement in different tectonic settings: (1) ophiolite-type mafic–ultramafic blocks [4], similar to magnesian ultramafic rocks without the metallogenic relation of Cu-Ni sulfide deposits, such as Heishan-Qingshuiquan-Wenquan ophiolites and Muzitag-Buqingshan-A’nyemaqen-De’erni ophiolites that represent remnant sections of the Early Paleozoic Proto-Tethys and the Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic Paleo-Tethys, respectively [4,5,6,7,8,9,10] (Figure 1a); (2) (layered) mafic–ultramafic intrusions related to extension [11,12] (Figure 1a), such as Xiarihamu [11,13,14,15], Shitoukengde [16,17,18,19,20], Binggounan [21,22], Akechukesai [23] and Dalaku’an [24]. Each provides important information on the chemical history of the mafic–ultramafic parental mantle source and its tectonic setting. Among these mafic–ultramafic intrusions, Xiarihamu intrusion contains super-large nickel deposits [13], and Shitoukengde and Binggounan also have nickel mineralization [14,15,16,22,25,26,27], making the East Kunlun region a favorable area for magmatic copper–nickel sulfide deposits [12].
The Dalaku’an mafic–ultramafic intrusion yields the highest nickel and copper grades, 0.65 wt% and 1.4 wt% [24], respectively, showing a characteristic of ferruginous mafic-ultramafic intrusions [24,28,29]. The formation age of the Dalaku’an mafic–ultramafic intrusion is 244 Ma ± 2 Ma (Zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MS) [24], indicating a Middle Triassic age, which coincided with the transition period of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean subduction closure to intracontinental collision orogeny [12,30]. The mantle source of this intrusion may be the enriched lithospheric mantle transformed by plate fluid replacement according to the geochemical and isotopic evidence [24]. The petrography and olivine composition indicate that the parent melt was saturated in sulfur during the olivine crystallization process, and then sulfide segregation occurred [24,28,29], which implied favorable conditions for the formation of magmatic Cu-Ni sulfide deposits. The Cu-Ni sulfide mineralization of the mafic–ultramafic intrusion may be restricted by magmatic evolution conditions such as temperature, pressure, oxygen fugacity, and water content. The crystallization of amphibole is controlled by these physical and chemical conditions [11,12]. Therefore, the chemical composition of amphibole can reflect the magmatic process [31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40] and the tectonic environment [33,41,42]. Various amphiboles, as common minerals, occur in distinct rock types of the Dalaku’an intrusion [24,28]; however, their types, compositions, and genetic significance are still neither adequate nor systematic.
This study focuses on various amphiboles within the Dalaku’an intrusion, leveraging detailed petrographic characteristics and mineral chemistry to (1) identify the types of amphiboles, (2) elucidate the temperature, pressure, oxygen fugacity, and (3) constrain the petrogenesis of the Dalaku’an intrusion.
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Figure 1. The tectonic and geological maps of the Dalaku’an intrusion. (a) Tectonic units of the East Kunlun (modified after [2]). Cu-Ni deposits: 1—Xiarihamu; Cu-Ni occurrences: 2—Dalaku’an, 3—Jikelikuole, 4—Lalinggaolihegounao, 5—Maxingdawannan, 6—Binggounan, 7—Kaimuqihe, 8—Akechukesai, 9—Detangou, 10—Bairiqiligou, 11—Shitoukengde. Ophiolites: (1) Muztag, (2) Buqingshan, (3) A’nyemaqen, (4) De’erni, (5) Heishan, (6) Qingshuiquan, (7) Wenquan. (b) The geological sketch map of the study area. Legend: 1—Upper Pleistocene, 2—Yerqiang Group, 3—Kalamilan Group, 4—Tuokuzidaban Group, 5—Bulakebashi Group, 6—the Late Variscan granite, 7—the Late Varican granodiorite, 8—the Middle Varican granite, 9—the Middle Varican diorite. (c) Lithologic map of the Dalaku’an intrusion. (d) Geological section (A-B); legend as in (c).
Figure 1. The tectonic and geological maps of the Dalaku’an intrusion. (a) Tectonic units of the East Kunlun (modified after [2]). Cu-Ni deposits: 1—Xiarihamu; Cu-Ni occurrences: 2—Dalaku’an, 3—Jikelikuole, 4—Lalinggaolihegounao, 5—Maxingdawannan, 6—Binggounan, 7—Kaimuqihe, 8—Akechukesai, 9—Detangou, 10—Bairiqiligou, 11—Shitoukengde. Ophiolites: (1) Muztag, (2) Buqingshan, (3) A’nyemaqen, (4) De’erni, (5) Heishan, (6) Qingshuiquan, (7) Wenquan. (b) The geological sketch map of the study area. Legend: 1—Upper Pleistocene, 2—Yerqiang Group, 3—Kalamilan Group, 4—Tuokuzidaban Group, 5—Bulakebashi Group, 6—the Late Variscan granite, 7—the Late Varican granodiorite, 8—the Middle Varican granite, 9—the Middle Varican diorite. (c) Lithologic map of the Dalaku’an intrusion. (d) Geological section (A-B); legend as in (c).
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2. Geological Background

The Dalaku’an mafic–ultramafic intrusion is located about 30 km southwest of Qiemo County, belonging to a part of the Late Paleozoic Kalamilan trench-arc system in the southern belt of the East Kunlun orogeny ([28,43,44,45] (Figure 1a). The main strata in the region include the Middle Devonian Brakbashi Group, the Lower Carboniferous Tuokuzidaban Group, the Middle–Upper Carboniferous Kalamilanhe Group, the Lower Middle Jurassic Yerqiang Group, and the Upper Pleistocene (Figure 1b). The magmatic intrusions are mainly Variscan granite–diorite and Indosinian mafic–ultramafic pluton ([24,46]) (Figure 1b,c). The Dalaku’an mafic–ultramafic intrusion is composed of two sections from east to west. The eastern segment spans about 96 m in length and 9–12 m in width, showing intrusive contact and local fault contact with Variscan granite [24] (Figure 1c,d). The Dalaku’an intrusion is mainly composed of ultramafic rocks and a small amount of mafic rocks (Figure 1c,d). Ultramafic rocks include lherzolite, wehrlite, olivine websterite, and clinopyroxenite, while mafic rocks include melagabbro and gabbro [24,28]. Wehrlite, clinopyroxenite, and (mela-)gabbro are exposed on the surface (Figure 2a). The significant accumulations of malachite, azurite, and limonite on the surface indicate a positive potential for mineralization, which was produced by the oxidation of sulfides such as pentlandite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite [24] (Figure 2b).

3. Petrography and Analytical Methods

3.1. Petrography

In this study, we collected 21 rock samples, including lherzolite, wehrlite, olivine websterite, clinopyroxenite, and (mela-)gabbro. Among peridotites and pyroxenites, the sulfides such as pentlandite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and pyrite occur in the textures of star-dot form, spot shape, disseminated, and sideronitic forms [24,29] (Figure 2c,d).
Peridotites are mainly composed of olivine (45%–60%), clinopyroxene (30%–40%), orthopyroxene (5%–10%), and a small amount of amphibole (0%–5%). Olivines (chrysolite, Fo = 85–89 [24]) as cumulate minerals are rounded and granular, with a particle size of 2 mm–5 mm, and underwent serpentinized along the cracks and edges to precipitate dust-like magnetites (Figure 2e,f). Clinopyroxene (augite and diopside [28]) as interstitial minerals are medium–coarse-grained, semi-automorphic–heteromorphic (Figure 2e), and orthopyroxene (bronzite, En = 81–82 [24]) as a corona may be the result of reaction between olivine and the residual melt. Amphiboles are also interstitial minerals between cumulus olivines, with some containing both olivine and clinopyroxene, thus manifesting a poikilitic texture characterized by a brown and irregular appearance (Figure 2f), classified as Type-I amphiboles (Amp-I).
Pyroxenites are composed of clinopyroxene (65%–80%), olivine (10%–30%), orthopyroxene (10%–20%), and a few amphiboles. Clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene exhibit a short columnar, granuloblastic, and mosaic texture with particle sizes of 1 mm–2 mm; the dihedral angle between the three particles is similar, about 120°. Some pyroxenes have been amphibolized. Olivines are mostly rounded, with a particle size of 0.5 mm–1.0 mm, and mostly wrapped by pyroxenes to form the poikilitic texture.
Gabbros are mostly distributed in the ultramafic rock in a lens shape or discontinuously distributed at the edge of the intrusion and have been classified into melagabbro and gabbro according to the modal abundance of clinopyroxene and plagioclase. Melagabbro mainly consists of clinopyroxene (65%–75%) and plagioclase (20%–30%), while gabbro consists of clinopyroxene (35%–50%) and plagioclase (40%–60%). A small amount of primary amphiboles (5%–10%) occur in both, with medium to fine-grained texture, exhibiting a grain with a greenish to yellow-green hue, and displaying idiomorphic and semi-idiomorphic features (Figure 2g), which are classified as Type-II amphiboles (Amp-II).
Type-III amphiboles (Amp-III) are mainly distributed in pyroxenites, melagabbros, and gabbros, showing dark grey-green coloration and idiomorphic and semi-idiomorphic features. Additionally, these amphiboles locally containing opaque minerals could be products of late alteration in clinopyroxenes (Figure 2h).

3.2. Analytical Methods

The major element analysis of amphiboles was performed on the JEOL JXA-8100 electron probe (EMPA) at the Key Laboratory of Western China’s Mineral Resources and Geological Engineering of the Ministry of Education, Chang’an University. The beam spot diameter was 1 μm, the acceleration voltage was 15 kV, and the test current was 20 nA. The peak and background counting times are as follows: Si, Fe, and Mg, 20 s and 10 s, respectively; Ca, 40 s and 20 s, respectively; and Ni, 60 s and 30 s, respectively. The standard samples used are as follows: Si and Mg are olivine, Fe is magnetite, Ca is diopside, and Ni is nickel metal. The relative accuracy of Si, Fe, and Mg is 2%, the relative accuracy of Ca and Ni is 5%, and the analysis results are corrected by the ZAF method, which takes into account the atomic number (Z), absorption (A) and fluorescence excitation (F).

4. Results

The composition data of amphiboles and the related calculated results are listed in Supplementary Table S1. The molecular formula for amphiboles is commonly written as A0–1B2C5[T8O22](OH)2. In this formula, the T position accommodates Si and Al; the C position may contain Al, Ti, Cr, Fe3+, Mg, Fe2+, and Mn; and the B position typically hosts Ca, Na, and the A position can accommodate Na and K. The cations are based on 23 oxygen atoms. According to the nomenclature principles recommended by the International Mineralogical Association [47,48,49,50], the BCa (Bivalent cation ratio) values of amphiboles range from 1.68 to 1.87, exceeding the threshold of 1.5, thereby classifying them as calcic amphiboles. Calcic amphiboles are further classified by A(Na + K) values, which range from 0.03 to 0.43, falling below 0.5. These classifications are depicted in the TSi-Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) diagram (Figure 3). The first type of amphiboles (Amp-I) comprises tschermakitic and magnesio hornblende. The second type (Amp-II) consists of magnesio hornblende, while the third (Amp-III) is featured by an actinolitic hornblende (Figure 3).
The chemical compositions of different types of amphiboles are shown in the Harker diagrams (Figure 4a–f). Amp-I is characterized by low silicon content yet abundant in aluminum, titanium, and alkali. Its SiO2 content is 43.30–46.11 wt%, with an average of 44.64 wt%. TiO2 content was 0.18–1.50 wt%, with an average of 0.84 wt%. Al2O3 content was 10.90–12.97 wt%, with an average of 11.79 wt%. The content of ALK (Na2O + K2O) was 1.96–2.43 wt%, with an average of 2.20 wt%. Amp-II exhibits intermediate features, with SiO2 content ranging from 47.02 to 50.73 wt%, with an average value of 49.04 wt%. TiO2 content was 0.20–0.93 wt%, with an average value of 0.37 wt%. Al2O3 content was 6.48–9.64 wt%, and the average value was 8.10 wt%. The ALK content was 1.04–1.81 wt%, with an average of 1.35 wt%. Amp-III, on the other hand, is enriched in silicon while exhibiting lower levels of titanium, aluminum, and alkali. Its SiO2 content is 51.68–51.84 wt%, with an average value of 51.76%. TiO2 content is 0.49 wt%, Al2O3 content is 6.12–6.92 wt%, and ALK content is 0.76–1.05 wt%.

5. Discussion

5.1. Genesis of Amphiboles

Amphiboles may originate from various geological processes such as magmatic, hydrothermal, and metamorphic processes. Petrographic characteristics reveal that the first and second types of poikilitic and interstitial amphibole (Amp-I and Amp-II) exhibit features indicative of magmatic origin, while the third type (Amp-III) appears to have formed by late-stage hydrothermal alteration. The differentiation is evident in the (Ca + Na + K)-TSi diagram, where Amp-I and Amp-II are situated within the magmatic area, whereas Amp-III occupies the post-magmatic area [51] (Figure 5a). For magmatic amphiboles, the chemical compositions serve as an effective tool for distinguishing between mantle-derived, crust-derived, and mixed-source amphiboles ([47,51,52]. Crust-derived amphiboles typically exhibit an Al2O3 content below 10%, a Si/ (Si + Ti + Al) ratio exceeding 0.775, and a Mg value Mg# = [Mg/(Mg + Fe2+)] less than 0.5. In contrast, mantle-derived amphiboles feature an Al2O3 content exceeding 10%, a Si/(Si + Ti + Al) ratio below 0.756, and a Mg value greater than 0.7 [41]. Within the Dalaku’an intrusion, the Al2O3 contents and Mg values of Amp-I are 10.90–12.97 and 0.79–0.99, respectively. Meanwhile, the Al2O3 contents of Amp-II are 6.48–9.64, and the Mg values are 0.03–0.23. In the diagrams of Al-TSi and TiO2-Al2O3 (Figure 5b,c), Amp-I is situated in the mantle source region, exhibiting Al2O3 contents consistent with the layered magmatic series. In contrast, Amp-II and Amp-III are situated in the crust source zone, which indicates that the Dalaku’an intrusion underwent a complex magmatic history probably related to the potential crustal contamination.

5.2. Temperature and Pressure

The chemical compositions of amphiboles serve as valuable indicators of the physical and chemical conditions, such as temperature and pressure during magma crystallization [32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63]. The AlIV-Al diagram (Figure 6a) shows that the amphiboles of Amp-I are formed under high-pressure conditions, while those of Amp-II and Amp-III are formed in low-pressure conditions. According to the following thermobarometers [60,61,62]:
T(±30 °C) = −151.487 × Si* + 2041, R2 = 0.84
In which Si* = Si + AlIV/15 − 2TiIV − AlVI/2 − TiVI/1.8 + Fe3+/9 + Fe2+/3.3 + Mg/26 + BCa/5 + Na/1.3 − ANa/15 + A[ ]/2.3.
P (±44 MPa) = 19.209e(1.438AlT), R2 = 0.99
R2 is the correlation parameter, and A[ ] is the vacancy of A-sit.
The crystallization temperatures of amphiboles within the Dalaku’an intrusion exhibit variations: Amp-I amphibole crystallizes within the range of 880–955 °C, with an average of 924 °C, while Amp-II amphibole crystallizes within the range of 774–852 °C, averaging at 813 °C. Amphibole of Amp-III crystallizes within a narrower range of 760–761 °C. Distinct types of amphiboles within the intrusion also demonstrate varying crystallization pressures: Amp-I amphibole ranges from 274 to 454 MPa, with an average of 344 MPa, corresponding to a continental depth of approximately 13 km. Amp-II amphibole ranges from 93 to 194 MPa, averaging 140 MPa, indicative of a continental depth of about 5.3 km. Amphibole of Amp-III, however, exhibits pressures between 84 and 101 MPa, falling below the lower limit of the formula’s calculation. Hence, the calculated results for Amp-III serve as reference values only. The calculation results suggest that the Dalaku’an intrusion is a medium–shallow intrusion. However, it has undergone magma chamber evolution at various depths across multiple stages.
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Figure 6. Temperature and pressure conditions of amphibole (the referred areas in (a) are based on [64]; the calculation model in (b) is based on [61]).
Figure 6. Temperature and pressure conditions of amphibole (the referred areas in (a) are based on [64]; the calculation model in (b) is based on [61]).
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5.3. Oxygen Fugacity and Water Content of Magma

In addition to temperature and pressure, oxygen fugacity and water content of magma are crucial factors influencing the processes of magma evolution [60,61,64,65]. Experimental studies indicate that the Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio in amphibole serves as a sensitive indicator for oxygen fugacity, with values less than 0.6 indicative of high oxygen fugacity systems. Values greater than 0.8 indicate a low oxygen fugacity system, and values between 0.6 and 0.8 represent medium oxygen fugacity [57]. The Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios of amphiboles within the Dalaku’an intrusion range from 0.19 to 0.34, indicating a magmatic system with high oxygen fugacity. According to the oxygen fugacity formula of amphiboles [52,60,66]:
△NNO = 1.644 Mg* − 4.01, R2 = 0.89
In which Mg* = Mg + Si/47 − AlVI/9 − 1.3TiVI + Fe3+/3.7 + Fe2+/5.2 − BCa/20 − ANa/2.8 + A[ ]/9.5
The error of the formula is ±0.22%.
During the crystallization of amphiboles within the Dalaku’an intrusion, the obtained oxygen fugacity values range from △NNO = 0.93 to 2.17 for Amp-I, averaging at 1.61, corresponding to logfO2 of about −9.81. For Amp-II, the range is △NNO = 1.55 to 2.52, with an average of 2.17, corresponding to a logfO2 of about −11.42. The average △NNO of Amp-III is 1.89, corresponding to a logfO2 of about −12.84. In the logfO2-T diagram, the amphibole data all fall within the region between HM and NNO, with a variation range from ΔNNO + 0.58 to ΔNNO + 2.0 (with an average of ΔNNO + 1.79) (Figure 7a). These characteristics indicate that amphiboles in the Dalaku’an intrusion may have formed in a high oxygen fugacity environment. The relative oxygen fugacity varied limitedly during the evolution stages of magma chambers at different depths, suggesting weak processes such as assimilative mixing or magma mixing that have not significantly altered the magma composition [24]. Furthermore, there exists a strong correlation between the AlIV of amphibole and its water content in the melt [61]. The formula for calculating water content is based on the molecular formula of amphibole [60,61]:
H2Omelt = 5.215Al* + 12.28, R2 = 0.83
In which Al* = Al + AlIV/13.9 − (Si + TiVI)/5 − Fe2+/3 − Mg/1.7 + (BCa + A[])/1.2 + ANa/2.7 − 1.56AK − Fe#/1.6; Fe# =Fe3+/(Fetotal + Mg + Mn)
The error of this formula is ±0.41%. According to the formula, the water contents of the magma during the crystallization of amphibole within the Dalaku’an intrusion are as follows: Amp-I H2Omelt =6.69–8.67, with an average of 7.67, and Amp-II is about 5.90–7.32, with a mean of 6.69 (Figure 7b).
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Figure 7. Oxygen fugacity and water content diagrams of different types of amphiboles (the calculation model is based on [61]). (a) T vs. logfO2 diagram; (b) H2Omelt vs. T diagram.
Figure 7. Oxygen fugacity and water content diagrams of different types of amphiboles (the calculation model is based on [61]). (a) T vs. logfO2 diagram; (b) H2Omelt vs. T diagram.
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The water contents calculated from amphiboles within the Dalaku’an intrusion during crystallization exhibit relatively high values and a broad range of variation (Figure 7b). This observation may be attributed to the influence of oceanic subduction in the mantle source, suggesting that the original magma is relatively rich in water. In addition, discrepancies in water content among amphiboles at various evolutionary stages may stem from the abundance of amphibole crystals during the early crystallization period [61].

5.4. Magmatic Properties and Tectonic Environment

The composition characteristics of amphibole serve as indicators reflecting the properties and tectonic environment of magma to a certain extent [32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,42,61]. In the K2O-TiO2 and AK-TAlIV diagrams, the amphibole components all fall within the subalkaline and calc-alkaline regions (Figure 8a,b), indicating that the Dalaku’an intrusion belongs to the calc-alkaline series. The SiO2-Na2O diagram depicts amphibole characteristics typical of a subduction zone (Figure 8c).
The East Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB) was a continental composite orogenic belt with major orogenic periods such as the late Early Paleozoic and Triassic [2,6,68,69,70,71,72,73]. From Late Permian to Early Triassic, the Paleo-Tethys Ocean subducted northward under the East Kunlun terrae [6], which induced the formation of a large area of arc-related acidic and basic intrusions spreading nearly east–west ([2,6,69,70,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81]. Since the Middle Triassic, the Paleo-Tethys Ocean has closed, and the collision between the Baryan Har-Songpanganzi block in the south and the East Kunlun terrane in the north has produced collisional granites and mafic–ultramafic intrusion [2,82,83,84,85]. The EKOB has entered the stage of collision orogeny and post-collision tectonic evolution [2,24,68,86,87,88,89,90]. The formation age of the Dalaku’an mafic–ultramafic intrusion is 244 Ma ± 2 Ma [24], indicating a Middle Triassic age, which coincided with the transition period of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean subduction closure to intracontinental collision orogeny [30]. The mantle source of the Dalaku’an intrusion may be the enriched lithospheric mantle transformed by plate fluid replacement according to the geochemical and isotopic evidence [24]. Generally, mafic intrusions formed under post-collisional extensional environments exhibit characteristics of island arc affinity. These intrusions are considered to result from the transformation of post-subduction plates and magmatic sources metasomatized by fluids [67]. This interpretation aligns with the formation of the Dalaku’an intrusion in a high-oxygen fugacity environment.

6. Conclusions

(1) Amphiboles within the Dalaku’an intrusion exhibit calcic amphibole characteristics and can be divided into three types: primarily tschermakitic hornblende and magnesio-hornblende for the first type, magnesio-hornblende for the second, and actinolitic hornblende for the third.
(2) The presence of amphiboles with both mantle and crustal origins suggests that the Dalaku’an intrusion has undergone complex magmatic processes.
(3) Crystallization temperatures for amphiboles range from (955–880) °C to (852–774) °C and then to (761–760) °C, while crystallization pressures span from 454 to 274 MPa to (194–93) MPa and then to (101–84) MPa. These findings imply that the Dalaku’an intrusion experienced multi-stage magma chamber evolution at various depths.
(4) Oxygen fugacity △NNO during crystallization ranges from (0.93–2.17) to (1.55–2.52) and to (1.89), falling between HM and NNO, indicative of a high oxygen fugacity environment. The H2Omelt content in the magma, calculated from amphiboles, ranges from (6.69–8.67) to (5.90–7.32), suggesting relatively high water content and significant variation during crystallization. This variation may be linked to the influence of oceanic subduction in the mantle source, indicating that the original magma was relatively rich in water.
(5) The amphiboles exhibit characteristics typical of a subduction zone. Combined with regional data, it is inferred that the magmatic source area of the Dalaku’an intrusion was metasomatized by subducted plate fluids, forming within a post-collisional extensional background.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min14070651/s1, Table S1: the compositions of amphiboles in the Dalaku’an mafic–ultramafic intrusion from the East Kunlun, Xinjiang (%).

Author Contributions

Methodology, Y.F., Y.D. and Z.X.; validation, Y.D., J.H. and Y.F.; formal analysis, M.R.; investigation, Z.X., J.H. and M.R.; data curation, J.H.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.F. and M.R.; writing—review and editing, Y.F., Y.D., M.R. and J.H.; supervision, M.R. and J.H.; funding acquisition, Y.F. and J.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was jointly financially supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 42102039 and 42003033) and the high-level talent research project of North China University of Water Resources and Electric Power (No. 201940775).

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in the supplement materials of this article.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to the Key Laboratory of Western Mineral Resources and Geological Engineering of the Ministry of Education for their support with the microprobe analysis. We are grateful to the anonymous reviewers who helped improve the paper and to the editors for handling, editing, and advising.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 2. Field photographs and microphotographs of the Dalaku’an intrusion: (a) field occurrence of the ultramafic rocks intruding the surrounding granite; (b) sulfide mineralization with malachite and azurite in olivine websterite [24]; (c) sideronitic sulfide assemblages in lherzolite [24]; (d) sulfide droplets in olivine websterite; (e) interstitial clinopyroxene between the cumulus olivine in wehrlite; (f) brown amphiboles (Amp-I) with olivine poikryst as irregular interstitial minerals between cumulate olivines in the peridotites and pyroxenites; (g) idiomorphic and semi-idiomorphic amphiboles (Amp-II) distributed in gabbros and melagabbros; (h) dark grey-green amphiboles (Amp-III) contain opaque minerals. The mineral abbreviations: Plg—plagioclase; Cpx—clinopyroxene; Amp—amphibole; Ol—olivine; Srp—serpentine.
Figure 2. Field photographs and microphotographs of the Dalaku’an intrusion: (a) field occurrence of the ultramafic rocks intruding the surrounding granite; (b) sulfide mineralization with malachite and azurite in olivine websterite [24]; (c) sideronitic sulfide assemblages in lherzolite [24]; (d) sulfide droplets in olivine websterite; (e) interstitial clinopyroxene between the cumulus olivine in wehrlite; (f) brown amphiboles (Amp-I) with olivine poikryst as irregular interstitial minerals between cumulate olivines in the peridotites and pyroxenites; (g) idiomorphic and semi-idiomorphic amphiboles (Amp-II) distributed in gabbros and melagabbros; (h) dark grey-green amphiboles (Amp-III) contain opaque minerals. The mineral abbreviations: Plg—plagioclase; Cpx—clinopyroxene; Amp—amphibole; Ol—olivine; Srp—serpentine.
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Figure 3. Classification and nomenclature of amphiboles. The classification areas are based on [47].
Figure 3. Classification and nomenclature of amphiboles. The classification areas are based on [47].
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Figure 4. The Harker diagrams of the different types of amphiboles: (a) SiO2 vs. MgO diagram; (b) SiO2 vs. FeO diagram; (c) SiO2 vs. CaO diagram; (d) SiO2 vs. N2O+K2O diagram; (e) SiO2 vs. Al2O3 diagram; (f) SiO2 vs. TiO2 diagram.
Figure 4. The Harker diagrams of the different types of amphiboles: (a) SiO2 vs. MgO diagram; (b) SiO2 vs. FeO diagram; (c) SiO2 vs. CaO diagram; (d) SiO2 vs. N2O+K2O diagram; (e) SiO2 vs. Al2O3 diagram; (f) SiO2 vs. TiO2 diagram.
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Figure 5. Genetic identification of amphiboles (the classification areas in (a) are based on [51]; the referred areas in (b,c) are based on [41]).
Figure 5. Genetic identification of amphiboles (the classification areas in (a) are based on [51]; the referred areas in (b,c) are based on [41]).
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Figure 8. Magmatic properties and identification of tectonic environment of the Dalaku’an intrusion (the referred areas in (a, b, and c) are from [67], [61], and [42], respectively).
Figure 8. Magmatic properties and identification of tectonic environment of the Dalaku’an intrusion (the referred areas in (a, b, and c) are from [67], [61], and [42], respectively).
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Fan, Y.; Deng, Y.; Xia, Z.; Ren, M.; Huang, J. Petrogenesis of the Dalaku’an Mafic–Ultramafic Intrusion in the East Kunlun, Xinjiang: Constraints from the Mineralogy of Amphiboles. Minerals 2024, 14, 651. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070651

AMA Style

Fan Y, Deng Y, Xia Z, Ren M, Huang J. Petrogenesis of the Dalaku’an Mafic–Ultramafic Intrusion in the East Kunlun, Xinjiang: Constraints from the Mineralogy of Amphiboles. Minerals. 2024; 14(7):651. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070651

Chicago/Turabian Style

Fan, Yazhou, Yali Deng, Zhaode Xia, Minghao Ren, and Jianhan Huang. 2024. "Petrogenesis of the Dalaku’an Mafic–Ultramafic Intrusion in the East Kunlun, Xinjiang: Constraints from the Mineralogy of Amphiboles" Minerals 14, no. 7: 651. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070651

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