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Article

Differential Characteristics of Conjugate Strike-Slip Faults and Their Controls on Fracture-Cave Reservoirs in the Halahatang Area of the Northern Tarim Basin, NW China

by
Shenglei Wang
1,
Lixin Chen
1,
Zhou Su
1,
Hongqi Dong
2,3,*,
Bingshan Ma
4,
Bin Zhao
1,
Zhendong Lu
1 and
Meng Zhang
3
1
PetroChina Tarim Oilfield Company, Korla 841000, China
2
School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
3
Institute of Karst Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences/Karst Dynamics Laboratory, MLR & GZAR, Guilin 541004, China
4
School of Geoscience and Technology, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2024, 14(7), 688; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070688
Submission received: 23 April 2024 / Revised: 3 June 2024 / Accepted: 16 June 2024 / Published: 30 June 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deformation, Diagenesis, and Reservoir in Fault Damage Zone)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The X-type strike-slip fault system and weathering crust karst fracture-cave and channel reservoirs were developed in the Halahatang area of the northern Tarim Basin. However, the relationship between the reservoir and the strike-slip fault remains controversial. Based on the core data, and taking an NE-striking strike-slip fault as an example, this paper dissects the karst reservoir from wells along the strike-slip fault damage zone and analyzes the control of scales, properties, and segmentation styles of strike-slip faults on karst reservoirs. The results show that (1) the scale of the strike-slip fault controls the distribution of the reservoir—the wider the fault damage zone, the wider the fracture-cave reservoirs; (2) the transtensional segments of the strike-slip fault are more likely to produce karstification, and the buried-hill area and the interbedded area are controlled by different hydrodynamic conditions to form different types of karst reservoirs; (3) six different parts of the strike-slip fault are conducive to the formation scale of fault fracture zones. This research provides new insight into recognizing karst reservoirs within strike-slip fault damage zones, which can be further applied to predict karst reservoirs controlled by strike-slip faults.

1. Introduction

The fracture system induced by tectonic activities can not only serve as an effective reservoir space [1,2], but the complex fracture network system in the fault damage zone can also be an important channel for fluid activity. The migration of atmospheric water, deep hydrothermal fluids, acidic hydrocarbon fluids, and other acidic fluids along the fault damage zone increases the area of fluid-rock interaction. It is conducive to the circulation of karst fluid, increases the vertical range of fluid, and promotes dissolution [3,4,5,6,7].
In recent years, several important oil and gas fields have been found in several ultra-deep basins in China. The ultra-deep and dense carbonate reservoirs have been proven to be closely related to strike-slip faults, but the coupling relationship between faults and karst is relatively less mentioned. Some researchers have pointed out three kinds of karst processes and four kinds of karst modes of faults in carbonate reservoirs in the Tarim Basin and established a series of fault-controlled karst reservoir models [3]. Han et al. believed that fault-controlled karstification was the main factor controlling the formation of the karst reservoir in the Tahe Oilfield [8], and pointed out that the fault system, as a favorable migration path of karst fluids, created favorable conditions for the occurrence of atmospheric freshwater dissolution, TSR (thermochemical sulfate reduction), hydrothermal dissolution and mixed dissolution. It is concluded that the scale, multi-stage activity, and vertical extension of faults have important effects on the fracture-cave reservoirs. Additionally, a model of a fault-controlled karst reservoir in combination with the outcrop indicated that the fault core was a favorable location for the development of large-scale karst fractures and caves due to intense fracturing and erosion, while small-scale fractures and caves are developed in the fracture zone. The development of fault-controlled karstification is usually distributed at a certain distance near the fault zone, and the trend of the fault controls the distribution of the karst zone, and the development of reservoirs away from the fault becomes weak [9,10,11,12]. In addition, strike-slip faults can connect the deep hydrothermal fluid to promote the hydrothermal dissolution of carbonate rocks and further influence the reservoir quality. The fault acts as a channel for oil and gas and other fluids, and further controls the distribution of oil and gas accumulation. The farther away from the strike-slip fault, the lower the oil and gas production. A typical X-type strike-slip fault system is developed in the Halahatang area of the northern Tarim Basin, and karst weathering crust reservoirs in the buried-hill area and karst channel reservoirs in the overlying area are also developed. However, how strike-slip faults control reservoirs often comes from outcrop studies, and there are few examples of how strike-slip faults control karst in underground conditions.
Based on the core data, this paper dissects the karst structure characteristics of wells along the strike-slip fault, analyzes control of the nature, segmentation, and scale of strike-slip faults in reservoirs, and further precisely guides reservoir prediction as well as oil and gas exploration and exploitation.

2. Geological Setting

The Halahatang Oilfield, an important ultra-deep (>6000 m) oilfield, is located on the southern slope of Tabei Uplift, Tarim Basin (Figure 1). The limestone reservoir includes the Middle Ordovician Yijianfang, Yingshan, and Upper Ordovician Liangliage formations [13,14]. The buried depth ranges from 5500 m to 7500 m, gradually deepening from north to south.
The Sinian–Quaternary strata in the Halahatang area are well-developed, and the deepest strata drilled in the study area are Ordovician. The Sinian–Devonian strata are mainly composed of marine sediments, the Carboniferous–Permian strata are dominated by marine-terrestrial transitional facies., and continental sedimentary strata dominate in the Triassic–Quaternary strata. In the Halahatang area, parts of the Upper Ordovician Sangtamu, Lianglitage, and Tumuxiuke formations are missing, gradually disappearing northward, with the Silurian angular unconformably overlaying them.
The Sinian strata and its upper sedimentary cover developed in the Archean–Early Mesoproterozoic deep metamorphic crystalline basement, the metamorphic fold basement in the Tarim Basin [15,16,17], and the basement consists of granitic metamorphic rocks in the upper crust, granodiorite in the middle crust, and Andesitic basaltic rocks in the lower crust [18]. The Sinian strata are the first sedimentary layer of the basin, and the basin went through a complex tectonic evolution history from the Sinian to the Quaternary period (Tang, 1994) [15]. The tectonic evolution involved multiple episodes of extension and compression processes [18], including the Nanhua Period to the Sinian strong extension-compression phase, the Cambrian to Ordovician weak extension-strong compression phase, the Silurian to Cretaceous intracratonic oscillation phase, and the Cenozoic weak extension-strong compression phase.
The Ordovician ancient carbonate rocks in the Halahatang Oilfield have undergone intense deep burial cementation, resulting in poorly developed matrix porosity. However, due to the multiple periods of karstification and faulting during the Caledonian to early Hercynian periods, various types of secondary carbonate rock porosities have developed. Previous studies proposed that the dominant reservoir types in the Halahatang Oilfield are karst pore and cave reservoirs [19,20]. In recent years, reservoir evaluation and development have revealed that large-scale fractured cave reservoirs within the strike-slip fault damage zones are the main targets for oil and gas accumulation and high production [21]. The development of reservoirs occurs in areas where faulting and karstification overlap, with a transition from south to north involving fault-controlled reservoirs, fault-karst co-controlled reservoirs, and primarily karstic cave reservoirs. This transition is divided from south to north into buried-hill karst areas, interlayer karst areas, and fault-controlled karst areas, each corresponding to blocky, tabular, and linear patterns, respectively.

3. Data and Method

In the study area, ~8000 km2 of 3D prestack depth migration seismic reflection data were used to investigate fault and fracture-cave reservoirs. To identify fault and fracture zone, seismic attributes like “coherence” “AFE (Automatic Fault Extraction)”, and “thin-likelihood” were computed. The identification of strike-slip faults was achieved by combining the interpretation of vertical sections and the visualization of planar attributes. The fracture-cave reservoirs were identified by seismic attributes like RMS (root mean square) and tensor attributes. More than 20 comprehensive well diagrams were mapped using the core data, drilling, and logging data, especially the empty and leakage data. The differential characteristics between different walls of the strike-slip fault were, therefore, investigated and analyzed.

4. Results

4.1. Structural Characteristics of Strike-Slip Fault

According to seismic structural interpretation, strike-slip faults are developed from the bottom up, mainly in the Lower Paleozoic structural layer, especially in the Cambo–Ordovician system. Shallow Mesozoic–Cenozoic faults are even rarer, often manifested as en-echelon faults.
The distinctive characteristic of the strike-slip faults in the Halahatang Oilfield, unlike other areas in the Tarim cratonic basin, is the occurrence of a typical X-shaped conjugate strike-slip fault system. This X-shaped fault system is mainly distributed in the lower Paleozoic, particularly within the Cambrian to Middle Ordovician strata. It consists of two sets of strike-slip faults oriented NE and NW. However, seismic profiles show that strike-slip faults with different orientations exhibit varying degrees and patterns of deformation in the profiles.
The NW-striking strike-slip fault has strong deformation in the Cambrian strata, and the seismic reflection events have obvious deflection on the bottom surface of the upper Cambrian. There is a vertical correlation between the deformation above and below, with significant fault offsets where multiple faults in the Cambrian have offsets greater than 50 m. As these faults extend upwards, the associated deformation weakens, and the fault offsets decrease, generally becoming much smaller than the variations seen in the Cambrian. On the other hand, for the NE-striking strike-slip faults, the deformation characteristics differ significantly from those of the northwest-oriented faults and can even be considered the opposite. These faults primarily exhibit weaker deformation at depth compared to shallower depths, with inconsistent deformation vertically, showing larger offsets at the upper levels and smaller offsets at lower levels.
Strike-slip faults in the Halahatang Oilfield are relatively developed in the Lower Paleozoic and form an X-type conjugated fault system on the plane. Taking the bottom of the Upper Ordovician Tumuxiuke Formation as an example, the NW-striking strike-slip faults are predominantly dextral, with orientations ranging from 330° to 360°, and developed in a nearly parallel manner. The NE-striking strike-slip faults are predominantly sinistral, with orientations between 16° and 30°. These NE-striking faults are more developed in the northeast and continuity decreases towards the southwest. In the conjugate strike-slip fault system developed in the Ordovician, the intersection angles between the two different orientations of faults range from 26.3° to 51.1°, with an average of 39.9° and a median of approximately 44°.

4.2. Characteristics of Typical Strike-Slip Fault

The FI7 strike-slip fault is predominantly oriented in a NE direction, with a total length of approximately 48 km on top of the limestone. At the base of the Upper Ordovician Tumuxiuck Formation, it mainly manifests as two major fault zones oriented in a north-south direction, arranged diagonally, with a separation of about 1.6 km between the two faults. Based on variations in fault patterns, this fault can be classified into linear segments, oblique segments, overlying segments, and various other types from north to south. The fault is primarily characterized by immature fault patterns such as linear and oblique faults, with rare occurrences of overlapping structures (Figure 2).
The strike-slip fault interacts with the NW-striking FII14 and FII13 faults, spatially divided into three major segments. The northern segment of the fault is relatively continuous, terminating at the NW-striking FII14. It develops multiple secondary faults connecting to it, exhibiting significant vertical displacements. The linear oblique segment is around 50 m high, with the height difference in the initial linear segment in the north being about 30 m, and the overlying segment near FII14 showing a height difference of around 60 m.
The middle segment is more discontinuous and less mature, characterized mainly by linear, discontinuous linear, or oblique low-maturity fault patterns. The faults appear as isolated small segments with small fault offsets. Local stress disturbances occur at the connecting points with FII13, resulting in the development of multiple sets of smaller faults in different orientations.
The southern segment primarily shows linear and oblique fault patterns. In comparison to the middle segment, it predominantly manifests as interconnected or interacting oblique segments, featuring both left-lateral and right-lateral oblique faults. Many oblique segments develop transverse faults, showing strong local interactions forming overlying extensional segments with offsets of up to 60 m.

4.3. Distribution Characteristics of a Fault-Controlled Fracture-Cave Reservoir

Distribution characteristics of the fault-controlled fracture-cave reservoir along the NE-striking FI7 strike-slip fault.
The statistics show that, along the western wall of the FI7 strike-slip fault, drilling lost circulation accounts for 37.83%, the maximum is 6.03 m (JY7-H7), and the drilling loss accounts for 72.97%, with the maximum loss volume being 1055 m3 (JY7-3X). In the east wall, the drilling lost circulation accounts for 23.81%, with the maximum loss reaching 4.0 m (HA702-1), and the drilling loss accounts for 57.14%, with the largest loss being 2104 m3 (HA15-H21). Combined with the analysis of seismic prediction results of fault-controlled reservoirs, the fault-controlled fracture-cave reservoirs along the strike-slip fault belt are relatively developed, and the karst fracture-cave reservoirs in the western fault wall are more developed (Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6).
In transpressional and linear segment, the karst fracture-cave reservoir is mainly developed in the Yijianfang Formation and partially in the upper part of the Yingshan Formation. The caves have a thickness ranging from 0.2 to 2.0 m, with drilling losses varying from 57.8 to 2140 m3. The caves mainly develop on the east wall with relatively higher loss volumes, indicating prominent karstic development of fracture caves of a certain scale. Within the range of 0 to 20 m below the top surface of the Yijianfang Formation, dissolution pores predominate, while the caves do not develop. Well-defined caves are primarily situated within the 20 to 60-m range below the top surface of the Yijianfang Formation. Below 60 m beneath the top surface of the Yijianfang Formation, dissolution fractures, and pores are predominant (such as HA15-7 and HA15-23). The karst fracture caves are distributed along the fracture zones on both sides of the fault (within a range of 50 to 500 m), with larger caves observed on the west wall. The closer or farther away from the main fault plane, the more caves are developed, with small fracture-pore reservoirs present (wells such as HA15, HA15-11, and HA15-7).
In the transpressional–overlapping segment, the scale of karst caves on the west wall ranges from 0.26 to 4.0 m thick (HA702-1), with drilling fluid losses of 14.24 to 1067.1 m3. On the east wall, the caves range from 0.32 (HA701) to 1.69 m thick (HA7-H21), with drilling fluid losses between 46.3 and 987 cubic meters. The caves on the west wall are more developed and larger in scale compared to those on the east wall. The vertical distribution of karst fracture caves extends from 0 to 30 m below the top surface of the Yijianfang Formation; substantial caves are mainly found within the 40- to 100-m range below the top surface of the Yijianfang Formation. Below 80 to 100 m beneath the top surface of the Yijianfang Formation, dissolution fractures and pores dominate (such as HA701-2, HA7-8, HA601-17, and other wells). The karst fracture caves are distributed along the fractured zones on both sides of the fault within a range of 50 to 1000 m. Larger caves are observed on the west wall, where cave development is more pronounced. Caves are more developed with larger scales in the vicinity of the fault influence zone, while they are less prominent farther away from the main fault plane, with small fracture-pore reservoirs present (wells like HA601-11, HA601-17, HA601, and others).
In the transpressional–oblique segment, only the RP7-H6 well experienced a drilling emptying of 3.01 m. Karst dissolution pores and caves are developed within 0 to 20 m below the top surface of the Yijianfang Formation. On the east wall, karst caves do not develop, and fractures and dissolution holes are observed instead, with no significant emptying losses. Between 40 and 80 m below the Yijianfang Formation, pores and fractures dominate (such as in wells HA602, RP13, HA602-2X, and others). The karst fracture caves are distributed along the fractured zones on both sides of the fault within a range of 50 to 1500 m.
In the transpressional–overlapping segment, the drilling data on the west wall has confirmed karst cave dimensions ranging from 0.26 m (HA6-2) to 4.0 m (HA702-1) thick, with drilling losses ranging from 14.24 to 1067.1 m3. On the east wall, the thickness of karst caves ranges from 0.50 m (JY7) to 6.03 m (JY7-H7), with drilling losses between 97.8 and 1055 m3. Both the east and west walls exhibit karst fracture caves of a certain scale. Vertically, dissolution pores develop within 20 m below the top surface of the Yijianfang Formation; between 30 and 60 m below, fractures and dissolution pores develop with local caves; caves develop within the 50- to 80-m range; below 80 m from the top surface, localized dissolution pores develop. The planar distribution of karst fracture caves is more pronounced along the fractured zone on the western side of the fault (in the range of 50 to 1500 m), with relatively larger cave structures. In the east wall, localized fracture and pore reservoirs can be observed in well RP7008.

5. Discussion

5.1. Control of Strike-Slip Faults on Reservoir Range

Statistical analysis results indicate that the fissure-cave reservoirs mainly develop within a 1200-m range from the strike-slip fault zone, while the high-yield wells are predominantly distributed within an 800-m range from the strike-slip fault zone (Figure 7). Combined with the analysis of the distribution characteristics of fractures and pores along the strike-slip fault damage zone, the fault-controlled reservoirs across the strike-slip fault damage zone show a power law reduction with the distance from the strike-slip fault, which is consistent with the power law distribution of fault elements [22,23] and relevant statistical research results of reservoir distribution [24].
The study area has undergone multi-stage interlayer karst and weathering crust karst and multi-stage buried dissolution [3,25]. The strike-slip fault damage zone is a favorable part of karstification in dense carbonate rocks, and it is easy to form different types of karst fracture-cave reservoirs. In addition, during weathering crust karst and buried dissolution, karstification can also occur along the fault damage zone, forming multi-stage and multi-type karst fracture cave reservoirs. The strike-slip fault damage zone may increase the permeability by more than one order of magnitude by strong rapture and transportation [24,25], and further facilitate the formation of large-scale fracture-cave reservoirs by karstification. Various types of fluid-rock interactions may occur along fault zones under the influence of the interaction among the atmospheric, freshwater, karst, and fault zones in the epigene environment. Through karstification, burial period hydrothermal solution erosion, and acidic fluid dissolution, significant fractures related to karst phenomena can form within fault zones, creating extensive reservoirs in the form of large karstic fractures and caves.

5.2. Influence of Strike-Slip Fault Scale on Reservoir

Research indicates that fault damage zones are closely related to large karstic fractures and caves formed by epigenetic karstification and burial period dissolution processes. Fault damage zones and intersections of fault damage zones are conducive to the distribution of large karstic fractures and cave reservoirs [3,26]. There are many kinds of karstification along the fault damage zone, and the karst fracture caves of different origins are distributed differently along the fault damage zone.
Large karstic fracture-cave reservoirs are primarily located within fault zones in the Tarim cratonic basin, and the reservoirs increase with the width of the fault-fractured zone (Figure 8). In the Halahatang Oilfield, the width of the distribution of fracture-cave reservoirs influenced by weathering crust karstification along fault damage zones can reach up to 5 km. However, there are also fracture-cave reservoirs that are not controlled by faults. Statistical analysis indicates that up to 80% of cave development occurs within a range of 800 m from the fault.
The fault damage zone can not only develop fractures but also form interconnected reservoirs, which are conducive to the karst process and form large-scale karst fracture-cave reservoirs. Vertically, the larger the scale of the fault-fractured zone, the larger the scale of the karstic fractures and caves. Along strike-slip fault zones, vertically penetrating fracture-cave systems may form [3]. Fracture caves with significant vertical stacking exhibit large-scale features, characterized by long “bead-like” reflections visible on seismic profiles, with thicknesses exceeding 1000 m.

5.3. Influence of Strike-Slip Fault Properties on Reservoir Distribution

Different segments with different properties of strike-slip faults exhibit varied controls on karst processes. In the buried-hill area, in the transtensional segments of strike-slip faults, the fault damage zone developed broken rocks and structural fractures, mainly characterized by high-angle fractures (Figure 9a). The degree of cementation in the fractured zone is relatively low, making it prone to karst processes [27,28]. Atmospheric precipitation and surface runoff primarily infiltrate vertically through fault damage zones and fracture zones, undergoing percolation leaching, where the dissolution along the fractures in the fault damage zone expands to form vertical karstic fractures and caves. When atmospheric precipitation and surface runoff infiltrate near the groundwater level, the dissolution along the fractures in the fault damage zone expands to form large-scale karstic fractures and caves, facilitating the formation of karst conduits. Karst processes are weaker in horizontal flow zones, resulting in smaller karstic fracture-cave systems [8,28,29,30]. The development of karstic fractures and caves along fault damage zones primarily involves the formation of large-scale caves or karst conduits, with dissolution holes and fissures as the main features in the fracture zones.
In the transpressional segments, broken rocks and structural fractures dominate the fault damage zone, which is characterized by a low opening degree and a high degree of cementation, making it less prone to subsequent karst processes (Figure 9b). Atmospheric precipitation and surface runoff primarily infiltrate vertically through the fracture zones, undergoing percolation leaching, leading to the formation of vertically developed small-scale fracture-cave reservoirs. When atmospheric precipitation and surface runoff infiltrate near the groundwater level, dissolution along the fracture influence zone expands to form large-scale karstic fractures and caves that spread horizontally. Vertically, the upper part is dominated by dissolved fractures, the middle part is mainly composed of large caves, and the lower part primarily consists of dissolution pores [31].
In interbedded karst areas, water dynamics play a significant role in controlling the karst processes, primarily during the period of Lianglitage Formation and pre-Silurian, where the water dynamics for karst processes during these different periods show distinct differences [32]. During the late Ordovician, surface runoff flowing southward formed multiple hills and valleys, with vertical dissolution processes developing. In the pre-Silurian, the shallow coverage area overlapped by the Sangtamu Formation in the hurried-hill area blocked the southward surface runoff, leading to lateral flow forming layer-concordant or fault-controlled karst [33,34,35].
In the extensional-twisting segments of strike-slip faults, the rock layers in the core of the fault fracture exhibit fragmentation and developed structural fractures, with a lower degree of cementation in the fractured zone, making it prone to karst processes. Atmospheric precipitation and surface runoff do not directly infiltrate and affect the Yijianfang Formation for karst processes. Instead, they contribute to southward runoff through the buried-hill recharge area, leading to the formation of concentrated flow in the fractured and crushed zones. This constitutes the primary hydrodynamic condition for the formation of karst fissures controlled by faulting in interbedded karst areas.
The water dynamics for karst processes during these different periods show certain differences (Figure 10). During the southward flow process, it is possible to generate characteristics of dual-layer underground water flow, leading to potentially different depths of layer-concordant karst features within the fault damage zone [28,36,37]. Karst processes predominantly involve horizontal dissolution in the damage and fracture zones in the direction of surface runoff. Dissolution along the fractures in the fault damage zone expands to form large-scale karstic fractures and caves that spread horizontally. Particularly, karst conduits are easily formed in fault damage zones. Some groundwater continues to infiltrate deeper, resulting in weaker karst processes compared to horizontal flow zones, leading to smaller-scale karst fractures and caves.
In the transpressional segments, the rock layers are fragmented, with well-developed structural fractures, but the degree of fracture opening is low (Figure 11a). The fractured zone has a high degree of cementation, making it less prone to subsequent karst processes (Figure 11b). Groundwater passes through the buried-hill recharge area, flowing southward along favorable stratigraphic karst features. This flow may lead to concentrated flow in the fracture zone, exhibiting dual-layer underground water flow characteristics. Some groundwater continues to infiltrate deeper, causing a gradual weakening of karst processes. Karst processes are relatively strong in the fracture zone, with large-scale karst fractures and pores distributed along the fracture zone, while karst fractures and pores in the damage zone may be relatively weaker [3,27,29,31,37,38,39,40,41]. Vertically, influenced by multiple periods of karst processes, shallow areas primarily form small-scale karst fractures and caves, predominantly driven by the karst in the Yijianfang Formation.

5.4. Influence of Strike-Slip Fault Styles on Reservoir Distribution

The reservoir is more developed along the fault damage zone, which is the main distribution location of high-production wells. The type and distribution of strike-slip faults controlled the distribution of the karst reservoir. In the isolated small-scale en-echelon fault segment, small fracture-cave reservoirs form along the main faults. In the overlapping segment where faults interact with each other, fracture-cave reservoirs with good fracture-cave connectivity are developed, and the distribution along the strike-slip fault damage zone is banded. On the other hand, in the transtensional segment where secondary faults develop, the fault damage zone is wide and the fracture-cave reservoir is distributed along the major faults [25].
In the initial stage of strike-slip fault formation and evolution, the faults are distributed in isolated segments [42]). A small-scale fault damage zone controlled by the major faults is characterized by small-scale fractures. The dissolution cave is centered along the fault core, and gradually expands the dissolution to form a small-scale fracture-cave reservoir, which is controlled horizontally by segmented faults and has poor connectivity with each other. During the process of segmental growth and overlaying, the connection between segmental faults occurs, and the fault damage zone expands and interacts with each other. Therefore, fault localization is gradually formed in overlaying segments, and the fault damage zone is widely controlled by multiple faults. On this basis, the dissolution cave developed along the fault damage zone, and the distribution range of the reservoir was widened [42,43,44,45]. The fault damage zones form interconnecting fault networks, and the karst caves also have good connectivity. During the through-going stage of the strike-slip fault, braided structures and pull-apart structures develop. Due to the stress and gouge development of the fault system, as well as the filling of the fault system, the fault network is filled, especially the fault core closure of the pull-apart graben, and the main fault is strengthened, thus forming a mutually separated fracture network. On this basis, the karst fracture cavity develops in blocks along the branch fault and fault damage zone of the strike-slip fault damage zone. Thus, a cluster fracture-cave reservoir distributed along fault-horst and graben shoulder is formed, and the connectivity between them is complicated.
The fracture zones of carbonate rocks are complex and varied, with great spatial variation. Generally, the larger the scale of fault is, the wider the fault damage zone is. In the fault damage zone, six parts, such as the intersection part, spreading part, transtensional segment, fault bending part, overlapping part, and tilting tip part, are conducive to the development of the fault damage zone (Figure 12). These areas are stress-release areas, which are conducive to the development of cracks and micro-faults, and conducive to karstification.
The intersection part of faults is conducive to the formation of network fractures and the development of structural breccia and cataclastic rocks. These fracture networks are favorable sites for atmospheric freshwater and buried erosion. At the intersection of the NW-striking and NE-striking fault damage zone, fractures develop, and the fluid injection along the fault damage zone forms confluence, which is conducive to the development of caves. Local highs form in the intersection of faults, which facilitates favorable karst collapse and river deposits carried away with the current, resulting the weak-filling caves.
The transpressional fracture strength is larger in the overlapping area, which is characterized by extrusion and uplift, as well as a transtensional depression area. The stress condition is more complex, and most of them have a local stress concentration area, forming a local fracture development system, which is conducive to fluid transport and karst development. Ha902 is located in the overlapping area of transtensional faults, forming local tensional-negative terrain and developing karst fracture caves, which is common in outcrops. The secondary fracture zone of the major fault often forms the local fracture stress release zone, which is the favorable position for the development of karstification.
The spreading part is more developed than the fracture zone at the tips of the faults, such as a horsetail structure and a feather structure, which is easy to form into a transtensional stress-releasing zone with open fractures, and is also a concentrated area of fluid transport along the fault, which is conducive to the development of large fractures and pores. The titling tip part is also the location of fault expansion and fracture development, which may form a local fracture development area, and it is favorable for the development of karst fracture caves under a favorable underground hydrological background.
The comprehensive analysis shows that the strike-slip fault damage zone controls the scale, distribution style, and vertical range. Therefore, strike-slip fault-controlled reservoirs and oil and gas exploration and exploitation should focus on strike-slip fault damage zones and determine the locations of fault damage zones based on the identification of the strike-slip fault segments, styles, and properties. Subsequently, the reservoirs should be evaluated along with the migration conditions for oil and gas in order to comprehensively identify potential oil and gas resource areas. However, relying solely on reservoir analysis related to strike-slip faults has limitations in oil and gas exploration and exploitation. It is still necessary to consider factors such as the vertical connectivity of strike-slip faults, the activity periods of faults, and the development extent of paleo-underground channels.

6. Conclusions

Combined with the analysis of the distribution characteristics of fractures and pores along the strike-slip fault damage zone, the fault-controlled reservoirs across the strike-slip fault damage zone have the distribution characteristics of power law reduction with the distance from the strike-slip fault. The scale of strike-slip fault controls the degree of reservoir development. The larger the width of the fault damage zone, the more the fracture-cave reservoir develops.
The properties of strike-slip faults affect the distribution of reservoirs. The transtensional segments of strike-slip faults are more likely to produce karstification. Different types of karst reservoirs are formed in buried-hill areas and interbedded areas under different hydrodynamic conditions.
The fault damage zone is complex and varied along its strike, and six parts, such as intersection, spreading, transtensional segment, bending, overlying, and tilting tip parts, are conducive to the development of the fault damage zone.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.W. and H.D.; methodology, L.C.; software, M.Z.; validation, S.W., L.C. and Z.S.; formal analysis, B.M.; investigation, B.Z.; resources, Z.L.; data curation, L.C; writing—original draft preparation, S.W.; writing—review and editing, H.D.; visualization, L.C.; supervision, B.M.; project administration, L.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Dataset available on request from the authors.

Acknowledgments

We appreciate Bin Liang for data preparation. We appreciate the editor and the anonymous reviewers for their work on our paper.

Conflicts of Interest

Shenglei Wang, Lixin Chen, Zhou Su, Bin Zhao, Zhendong Lu were employed by the PetroChina Tarim Oilfield Company. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

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Figure 1. Simplified map of the tectonic units (a) and comprehensive stratigraphic column (b) in the northern Tarim Basin (In the figure frame is the scope of the study area).
Figure 1. Simplified map of the tectonic units (a) and comprehensive stratigraphic column (b) in the northern Tarim Basin (In the figure frame is the scope of the study area).
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Figure 2. Comprehensive map of segmentation characteristics of strike-slip fault FI7 in Halahatang Oilfield. (a). Planar interpretation of strike-slip fracture zones; (b) Fracture, maximum likeihood atrribute, structural tensor overlay graph; (c) Trend of height difference variation; (d) Seismic profiled; (e) Fracture segmentation mode).
Figure 2. Comprehensive map of segmentation characteristics of strike-slip fault FI7 in Halahatang Oilfield. (a). Planar interpretation of strike-slip fracture zones; (b) Fracture, maximum likeihood atrribute, structural tensor overlay graph; (c) Trend of height difference variation; (d) Seismic profiled; (e) Fracture segmentation mode).
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Figure 3. Comparison diagram of karst (karst reservoir) along the strike-slip fault FI7 (west wall HA6-2-HA15-23 in the Northeastern Segment).
Figure 3. Comparison diagram of karst (karst reservoir) along the strike-slip fault FI7 (west wall HA6-2-HA15-23 in the Northeastern Segment).
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Figure 4. Comparison diagram of karst (karst reservoir) along the strike-slip fault FI7 (East wall HA601-HA-15-22X of the northeastern section).
Figure 4. Comparison diagram of karst (karst reservoir) along the strike-slip fault FI7 (East wall HA601-HA-15-22X of the northeastern section).
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Figure 5. Comparison diagram of karst (karst reservoir) along the strike-slip fault FI7 (RP7-H2-Ha602 in the eastern wall of the southwest segment).
Figure 5. Comparison diagram of karst (karst reservoir) along the strike-slip fault FI7 (RP7-H2-Ha602 in the eastern wall of the southwest segment).
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Figure 6. Comparison diagram of karst (karst reservoir) along the FI7 strike-slip fault (west wall JY7-RP7-H6 in the Southwest segment).
Figure 6. Comparison diagram of karst (karst reservoir) along the FI7 strike-slip fault (west wall JY7-RP7-H6 in the Southwest segment).
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Figure 7. Correlation diagram between the distance between the “string bead” shaped fracture cavity and the strike-slip fault in the Yijianfang Formation of Harahatang Oilfield (a) and the crude oil production and the distance from the strike-slip fault (b) (From internal data statistics of oil field).
Figure 7. Correlation diagram between the distance between the “string bead” shaped fracture cavity and the strike-slip fault in the Yijianfang Formation of Harahatang Oilfield (a) and the crude oil production and the distance from the strike-slip fault (b) (From internal data statistics of oil field).
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Figure 8. Correlation between the width of Ordovician carbonate rock fractures and caves and the width of fault damage zones in Halahatang Oilfield (Quoted from [22]).
Figure 8. Correlation between the width of Ordovician carbonate rock fractures and caves and the width of fault damage zones in Halahatang Oilfield (Quoted from [22]).
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Figure 9. Karstification mode diagram of the transtensional segment (a) and transpressional segment (b) of the strike-slip fault in the buried-hill area.
Figure 9. Karstification mode diagram of the transtensional segment (a) and transpressional segment (b) of the strike-slip fault in the buried-hill area.
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Figure 10. Geological model for the formation of karst fractures and caves in the Ordovician carbonate interbedded karst area of Halahatang Oilfield (North-South Direction).
Figure 10. Geological model for the formation of karst fractures and caves in the Ordovician carbonate interbedded karst area of Halahatang Oilfield (North-South Direction).
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Figure 11. Karstification mode diagram of strike-slip fault tension and torsion segments (a) and compression and torsion segments (b) in the coverage area.
Figure 11. Karstification mode diagram of strike-slip fault tension and torsion segments (a) and compression and torsion segments (b) in the coverage area.
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Figure 12. Favorable location and characteristics of the fault damage zone of Ordovician carbonate rocks. (Green circles indicate favorable location, red lines indicate strike-slip fault).
Figure 12. Favorable location and characteristics of the fault damage zone of Ordovician carbonate rocks. (Green circles indicate favorable location, red lines indicate strike-slip fault).
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Wang, S.; Chen, L.; Su, Z.; Dong, H.; Ma, B.; Zhao, B.; Lu, Z.; Zhang, M. Differential Characteristics of Conjugate Strike-Slip Faults and Their Controls on Fracture-Cave Reservoirs in the Halahatang Area of the Northern Tarim Basin, NW China. Minerals 2024, 14, 688. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070688

AMA Style

Wang S, Chen L, Su Z, Dong H, Ma B, Zhao B, Lu Z, Zhang M. Differential Characteristics of Conjugate Strike-Slip Faults and Their Controls on Fracture-Cave Reservoirs in the Halahatang Area of the Northern Tarim Basin, NW China. Minerals. 2024; 14(7):688. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070688

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Shenglei, Lixin Chen, Zhou Su, Hongqi Dong, Bingshan Ma, Bin Zhao, Zhendong Lu, and Meng Zhang. 2024. "Differential Characteristics of Conjugate Strike-Slip Faults and Their Controls on Fracture-Cave Reservoirs in the Halahatang Area of the Northern Tarim Basin, NW China" Minerals 14, no. 7: 688. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070688

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