Adsorption of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Wastewater Using Iron Oxide Nanomaterials Recovered from Acid Mine Water: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Iron Oxide Nanomaterials
2.1. Magnetite
2.2. Maghemite
2.3. Hematite
2.4. Goethite
3. Synthesis of Iron Oxide Nanomaterials from Acid Mine Drainage
3.1. Overview of the Environmental Effects of Acid Mine Drainage
3.2. Processes for Recovering Iron Oxide from Acid Mine Water
- Neutralization: the AMD is neutralized using alkaline substances such as lime (Ca(OH)2), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which raises the pH, causing dissolved iron to precipitate as iron hydroxides (Fe(OH)3) [58].
- Precipitation and coagulation: the neutralization process promotes the formation of iron hydroxide flocs, which coagulate and settle out of the solution [59].
- Filtration and washing: The precipitated iron hydroxides are separated from the treated water through filtration. The solids are then washed to remove impurities and excess neutralizing agents [32].
- Oxidation: The iron hydroxide precipitates are oxidized to form iron oxide nanomaterials. This can be achieved by the following:
- Air oxidation: allowing the hydroxides to air-dry and oxidize naturally.
- Chemical oxidation: using oxidizing agents like hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to accelerate the conversion [55].
- Thermal treatment: the oxidized materials are subjected to thermal treatment (calcination) at controlled temperatures to produce the desired phase of iron oxide, such as magnetite, maghemite, or hematite [33].
- Characterization: the synthesized nanomaterials are characterized using techniques like scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) to verify their phase, morphology, and functional properties.
3.3. Characterization of Recovered Iron Oxide Nanomaterials
4. Mechanisms of PAH Adsorption onto Iron Oxide Nanomaterials
4.1. Adsorption Isotherms and Kinetics
4.2. Factors Influencing Adsorption Efficiency
4.3. Interaction Mechanisms between PAHs and Iron Oxide Surfaces
5. Comparison of Iron Oxide Nanomaterials with Other Adsorbents
5.1. Performance Comparison with Other Commonly Used Adsorbents
5.2. Cost-Effectiveness and Availability
5.3. Regeneration and Reusability
5.4. Advantages of Using IONs for Adsorption Processes
6. Treatment
6.1. Wastewater Containing PAHs
6.2. Case Studies and Practical Applications
6.2.1. Examples of Lab-Scale and Field-Scale Studies on PAH Removal Using Iron Oxide Nanomaterials
6.2.2. Success Stories and Challenges Encountered
6.2.3. Real-World Applications and Pilot Projects
7. Environmental and Economic Implications
7.1. Environmental Benefits of Using Recovered Materials
7.2. Economic Analysis of Using Iron Oxide Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment
7.3. Sustainability and Scalability of This Approach
7.4. Feasibility
8. Future Prospects and Research Directions
8.1. Emerging Trends and Innovations in Nanomaterial-Based Adsorption
8.2. Potential Improvements in Recovery and Synthesis Methods
8.3. Future Research Needs and Directions for Enhancing Adsorption Efficiency and Practical Applicability
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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PAH | Chemical Formula | Number of Rings | Properties | Sources | Toxicity |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Naphthalene | C10H8 | 2 | Volatile, used in mothballs and as a chemical intermediate | Fossil fuels, combustion of organic matter | Possible human carcinogen |
Acenaphthylene | C12H8 | 3 | Pale yellow solid, used in dyes and plastics manufacturing | Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels | Toxic to aquatic life, not classifiable for humans |
Acenaphthene | C12H10 | 3 | White solid, used in insecticides and fungicides | Coal tar, oil, wood burning | Low acute toxicity, not classifiable for humans |
Fluorene | C13H10 | 3 | White crystalline solid, used in production of dyes, plastics, and pesticides | Fossil fuels, combustion of organic materials | Possible human carcinogen |
Phenanthrene | C14H10 | 3 | White crystalline solid, used in dyes, drugs, and explosives | Coal tar, crude oil, combustion processes | Not classifiable as a human carcinogen |
Anthracene | C14H10 | 3 | Used in the production of dyes, plastics, and pesticides | Coal tar, combustion of organic materials | Not classifiable as a human carcinogen |
Fluoranthene | C16H10 | 4 | Pale yellow solid, used in the production of dyes and plastics | Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels | Possible human carcinogen |
Pyrene | C16H10 | 4 | Pale yellow solid, used in the production of dyes and plastics | Fossil fuels, combustion of organic materials | Possible human carcinogen |
Benzo[a]anthracene | C18H12 | 4 | Yellow solid, used in the production of dyes and pigments | Fossil fuels, incomplete combustion | Probable human carcinogen |
Chrysene | C18H12 | 4 | Yellow solid, used in the production of dyes and pigments | Coal tar, oil, wood burning | Probable human carcinogen |
Benzo[b]fluoranthene | C20H12 | 5 | Yellow solid, used in research | Fossil fuels, incomplete combustion | Probable human carcinogen |
Benzo[k]fluoranthene | C20H12 | 5 | Yellow solid, used in research | Fossil fuels, incomplete combustion | Probable human carcinogen |
Benzo[a]pyrene | C20H12 | 5 | Yellow solid, well-studied PAH | Fossil fuels, combustion of organic materials | Known human carcinogen |
Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene | C22H12 | 6 | Yellow solid, used in research | Fossil fuels, incomplete combustion | Probable human carcinogen |
Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene | C22H14 | 5 | Yellow solid, used in research | Fossil fuels, incomplete combustion | Probable human carcinogen |
Benzo[ghi]perylene | C22H12 | 6 | Yellow solid, used in research | Fossil fuels, incomplete combustion | Possible human carcinogen |
Iron Oxide Nanomaterial | Chemical Formula | Crystal Structure | Magnetic Properties | Chemical Properties | Advantages | Limitations | Ability to Remove Organic Substances | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Magnetite | Fe3O4 | Inverse Spinel | Strongly magnetic (ferromagnetic) | Fe2+ and Fe3+ present, black in colour | High magnetic response, easy separation, good conductivity | Prone to oxidation to maghemite, less stable in acidic conditions | High, effective for organic removal due to catalytic properties | [40,41] |
Maghemite | γ-Fe2O3 | Cubic (defective spinel) | Ferrimagnetic | Fe3+ only, brownish red in colour | Stable over a wide range of pH, good for biomedical applications | Lower magnetic saturation compared to magnetite, more expensive | Moderate to high, good for catalytic degradation of organics | [42,43] |
Goethite | FeO(OH) | Orthorhombic | Weakly magnetic (antiferromagnetic) | Fe3+, yellow to brown in colour | High surface area, good adsorption capacity for heavy metals | Lower magnetic properties, less effective for magnetic separation | Moderate, effective for adsorption and oxidation of certain organics | [42,44,45] |
Hematite | α-Fe2O3 | Rhombohedral | Weakly magnetic (antiferromagnetic) | Fe3+, red in colour | High stability, corrosion-resistant, good for photocatalysis | Low magnetic properties, less effective for magnetic separation | Moderate, good for photocatalytic degradation of organics | [43,44] |
Process | Description | Advantages | Limitations | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Neutralization | Addition of alkaline substances (e.g., lime, limestone) to increase pH and precipitate iron as iron hydroxides | Simple, cost-effective, widely used | Generates large volumes of sludge, potential for incomplete reactions | [35,39] |
Precipitation and Coagulation | Addition of chemicals (e.g., ferric chloride, aluminium sulphate) to promote aggregation of iron particles for easier removal | Effective at low iron concentrations, enhances settling | Chemical costs, sludge disposal issues, may require pH adjustment | [46,55] |
Filtration and Washing | Physical separation of precipitated iron particles through filtration, followed by washing to remove impurities | Produces relatively pure iron oxide, can be combined with other methods | Filter clogging, requires regular maintenance, may need pre-treatment | [47,60] |
Oxidation | Oxidation of ferrous iron (Fe2+) to ferric iron (Fe3+) using oxidizing agents (e.g., air, oxygen, chlorine) to facilitate precipitation as iron hydroxide | Enhances iron removal efficiency, can be combined with biological methods | Requires controlled conditions, potential for incomplete oxidation | [61] |
Thermal Treatment | Heating of precipitated iron hydroxides to convert them to more stable iron oxides (e.g., hematite, magnetite) | Produces high-purity iron oxides, potential for resource recovery | Energy-intensive, high operational costs, may release contaminants | [33,62] |
Regeneration Method | Description | Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|
Chemical Regeneration | Uses chemical reagents (e.g., acids, bases) to desorb contaminants and regenerate nanoparticles | Effective for a wide range of contaminants, can be performed at room temperature | Use of chemicals can be hazardous, potential environmental impact |
Thermal Regeneration | Heating nanoparticles to high temperatures to remove adsorbed contaminants | High effectiveness in removing organic contaminants, restores nanoparticle properties | Energy-intensive, can cause particle sintering and reduce surface area |
Electrochemical Regeneration | Applying an electric field to facilitate desorption of contaminants | Environmentally friendly, selective desorption, no chemical use | Requires specialized equipment, limited to certain types of contaminants |
Magnetic Separation | Using magnetic fields to separate and recover nanoparticles from the treated medium | Efficient and rapid recovery, minimal chemical use | May not fully regenerate adsorption capacity, requires magnetic equipment |
Biological Regeneration | Using microorganisms to degrade or transform contaminants on nanoparticle surfaces | Sustainable and environmentally friendly | Slower process, effectiveness depends on contaminant type and microbial activity |
Ultrasonic Treatment | Applying ultrasonic waves to agitate and clean nanoparticle surfaces | Effective in removing weakly adsorbed contaminants, can be combined with other methods | Limited to specific contaminants, requires specialized equipment |
Solvent Extraction | Using organic solvents to dissolve and remove contaminants | Effective for organic contaminants | Use of organic solvents can be hazardous, solvent disposal issues |
Adsorbent | Advantages | Limitations | Cost-Effectiveness | Availability | Reusability | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Iron Oxide Nanoparticles | High surface area, high adsorption capacity, selective adsorption of certain contaminants, magnetic properties for easy separation | Potential toxicity, high synthesis cost, requires specialized equipment | Moderately high initial cost, but efficient in small quantities | Limited, requires specialized production facilities | Good, can be regenerated and reused multiple times | [26,36] |
Activated Carbon | High surface area, effective for a wide range of contaminants, widely used | High cost, non-selective adsorption, regeneration can be challenging | High, especially for large-scale applications | Widely available commercially | Limited, performance decreases after regeneration | [65,73,74] |
Zeolites | High selectivity, good for ion exchange processes, relatively low cost | Limited by pore size, less effective for large organic molecules | Moderate, depends on specific type and application | Readily available | Good, can be regenerated with proper treatment | [72] |
Biochar | Low cost, sustainable, produced from waste biomass, good adsorption for organics and metals | Lower adsorption capacity compared to activated carbon, variable quality | Low to moderate, cost-effective for large-scale use | Widely available, can be locally produced | Moderate, depends on contaminant type and regeneration method | [79] |
Clay Minerals | Low cost, natural availability, good for cation exchange | Low adsorption capacity, limited by specific surface area, possible desorption | Very cost-effective, especially for large volumes | Readily available, abundant in nature | Limited, often single-use due to low regeneration efficiency | [80,81] |
Silica Gel | High surface area, good for polar compounds, relatively low cost | Limited to specific applications, can be affected by humidity | Moderate, depends on application | Widely available commercially | Limited, often not reused due to cost and practicality | [82] |
Iron Oxide Nanomaterial | No. of PAHs | % Recovery | Country | Sample Matrix | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Iron oxide nanoparticles | 3 | 70%–90% | USA | Water | [26] |
Iron oxides | 1 | _ | China | Water | [64] |
Iron oxides | 1 | _ | India | Soil | [42] |
Iron hexacyanoferrate nanoparticles | 5 | 70%–90% | India | Water, Soil | [84] |
Iron oxide nanoparticles | 2 | 98.5%–99% | Egypt | Water | [19] |
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Mogashane, T.M.; Maree, J.P.; Mokoena, L. Adsorption of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Wastewater Using Iron Oxide Nanomaterials Recovered from Acid Mine Water: A Review. Minerals 2024, 14, 826. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14080826
Mogashane TM, Maree JP, Mokoena L. Adsorption of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Wastewater Using Iron Oxide Nanomaterials Recovered from Acid Mine Water: A Review. Minerals. 2024; 14(8):826. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14080826
Chicago/Turabian StyleMogashane, Tumelo M., Johannes P. Maree, and Lebohang Mokoena. 2024. "Adsorption of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Wastewater Using Iron Oxide Nanomaterials Recovered from Acid Mine Water: A Review" Minerals 14, no. 8: 826. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14080826