Coal and Coal By-Products as Unconventional Lithium Sources: A Review of Occurrence Modes and Hydrometallurgical Strategies for Metal Recovery
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Lithium in Coal
3.1. Lithium-Rich Coal Seams
3.2. Lithium Determination in Coal
3.3. Occurrence Modes of Lithium
3.4. Lithium Extraction
4. Recovery of Lithium from Coal Gangue
4.1. Coal Gangue
4.2. Occurrence Modes of Lithium
4.3. Lithium Pre-Enrichment Methods
4.4. Lithium Extraction
4.5. Lithium Separation
5. Recovery of Lithium from Coal Fly Ash
5.1. Coal Fly Ash
5.2. Occurrence Modes of Lithium
5.3. Lithium Pre-Enrichment Methods
5.4. Lithium Extraction
5.5. Lithium Separation
6. Lithium Recovery from Coal Bottom Ash
6.1. Coal Bottom Ash
6.2. Occurrence Modes of Lithium
6.3. Lithium Extraction
7. Conclusions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Lithium Source | Li Concentration, wt% (or ppm) |
---|---|
Ores | |
Spodumene Li2O∙Al2O3∙4SiO2 | 1.9–3.3 |
Lepidolite LiF∙KF∙Al2O3∙3SiO2 | 1.4–1.9 |
Zinnwaldite LiF∙KF∙FeO∙Al2O3∙3SiO2 | 1.2–1.3 |
Petalite Li2O∙Al2O3∙4SiO2 | 1.6–2.2 |
Amblygonite 2LiF∙Al2O3∙P2O5 | 3.5–4.2 |
Eucryptite Li2O∙Al2O3∙2SiO2 | 2.3–3.3 |
Jadarite Na2O∙Li2O∙2SiO2∙3B2O3∙H2O | ~0.1 |
Hectorite Na0.3(Mg,Li)3Si4O10(F,OH)2·nH2O | ~0.4 |
Soils | |
Earth | 13–22 ppm |
Moon | 11–14 ppm |
Mars | 1.8–3 ppm |
Brines | |
Salar | 20–1500 ppm |
Geothermal | 0.3–440 ppm |
Oilfield | 50–572 ppm |
Water | |
Marine | 0.1–1.2 ppm * |
Fresh | 0.001–0.02 ppm |
Deep-sea or submarine | |
Fe–Mn nodules | 20–300 ppm |
Fe–Mn crusts | 1–1200 ppm |
Li–ion batteries | 11 |
World Coals | 1–80 ppm |
Coal tailings | |
Gangue | 420–550 ppm |
Fly ash | 70–650 ppm |
Bottom ash | 46–146 ppm |
Country | Lithium Concentration, ppm |
---|---|
Australia | 8–34 |
China | 28–264 |
India | 26–353 |
Russia | 27–172 |
South Africa | 45–81 |
Turkey | 1.2–140 |
United States | 6–185 |
Region/Coalfield | Lithium-Bearing Minerals |
---|---|
Bulgaria | |
Pernik | organic matter |
China | |
Jungar | aluminosilicates, chlorite, kaolinite, boehmite, chamosite |
Ningwu | kaolinite, chlorite, boehmite |
Jingchen | Cookeite |
Chongqing | kaolinite |
Shuicheng | aluminosilicates |
Xingren | clay minerals, organic matter |
Russia | |
Bikinsk | clay minerals, tosudite |
Source | Concentration, ppm | Bearing Minerals | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Thermal coal preparation plant, Jungar | 421 | Kaolinite | [28] |
Malan coal mine, Shanxi Province | 110 | Kaolinite | [92] |
Antaibao coal mine, Shanxi Province | 100 | Mica, clay | [93] |
Shuozhou, Shanxi Province | 160 | No details | [94] |
Heidaigou open-pit coal mine | 107 | Kaolinite | [95] |
Zhuneng coal preparation plant, Jungar | 437 | Clay minerals | [97] |
Guangxi Province | 511 * | Inorganic matter | [98] |
Xian’an coalfield, Guangxi Province | 550 | Aluminosilicates | [99] |
Jincheng coal seam, Shanxi Province | 277 | Clay minerals | [100] |
Thermal coal preparation plant, Jungar | 223 | Kaolinite | [101] |
Guangxi Province | 550 | Kaolinite | [102] |
Pingshuo coal mine, Shanxi Province | 344 | Kaolinite | [103] |
Pingshuo coal gangue power plant, Shanxi Prov. | 121 | Kaolinite, quartz | [104] |
Pretreatment Stage | Leaching Conditions | Lithium Extraction | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
One-step pretreatment | |||
Calcination | |||
600 °C, 2 h | 3 M HCl, 90 °C, S/L 1:10, 3 h, 200 rpm | 92.0% | [28] |
400 °C, 0.3 h | 2 M HCl, 60 °C, S/L 1:10, 4 h, 200 rpm | 94.3% | [97] |
500 °C, 1 h | 15% H2SO4, 90 °C, S/L 1:5, 0.7 h, stirring | 99.6% | [102] |
650 °C, 2 h | 6 M H2SO4, 120 °C, S/L 1:10, 1 h, 400 rpm | 74.5% | [100] |
550 °C, 0.5 h | HNO3, 150 °C, S/L 1:5, 2 h, 400 rpm | 80.5% | [94] |
500 °C, 2 h | 8 M H2C2O4, 90 °C, S/L 1:5, 1 h, stirring | 89.1% | [98] |
Roasting | |||
(NH4)2SO4 + NH4Cl, 400 °C, 1 h | H2O, 60 °C, 1 h, shaking | 80.8% | [95] |
Baking | |||
70% H2SO4, 180 °C, 1 h | H2O, 25 °C, S/L 1:5, 1 h, stirring | 84.4% | [99] |
Intercalation | |||
DMSO, 60 °C, 24 h | 3 M HCl, 90 °C, S/L 1:10, 3 h, 200 rpm | 17.6% | [28] |
Multi-step pretreatment | |||
I. Intercalation CH3COOK, 25 °C, 28 h II. Delamination H2O, 0.5 h, ultrasound; drying III. Roasting (NH4)2SO4, 380 °C, 1 h I. Grinding 1.5 h, ball mill II. Thermal activation N2 atmosphere, 400 °C, 0.5 h | H2O, 70 °C, S/L 1:80, 1 h, stirring 0.2 M (NH4)2SO4, pH 1, 60 °C, S/L 1:30, 3 h, 500 rpm | 86.6% 84.8% | [96] [101] |
Source | Content, ppm | Lithium Host Phase | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Pingshuo Coal Gangue Power Plant, China | 190 | Uncertain | [104] |
470 | No data | [143] | |
Power plants, China | Glass, aluminosilicate, magnetic | [129] | |
Gouha Jungar, Inner Mongolia | 412 | ||
Datang Togtoh, Inner Mongolia | 375 | ||
Datong, Shanxi | 266 | ||
Yangquan, Shanxi | 267 | ||
Jungar Power Plant, China | 453 * | Glass | [130] |
Chongqing Power Plant, China | 197 | Aluminosilicate glass, mullite, quartz | [131] |
Tashan Power Plant, China | 196 | Glass | [132] |
Pingwei Power Plant, China | 57 | Aluminosilicate, glass | [134,140] |
Shuozhou Thermal Power Plant, China | 930 ** | Lithium silicate, glass | [135] |
Thermoelectric Power Plant, China | 403 | No data | [136] |
IMDIRRD Co., Ltd., Honhot, China | 632 *** | No data | [139] |
Power plant, China | 502 | Aluminosilicate glass | [142] |
Pulverized coal-fired power plants, Europe | No data | [127] | |
Monfalcone, Italy | 161 | ||
Sardegna, Italy | 377 | ||
Barrios, Spain | 311 | ||
Espiel, Spain | 303 | ||
Teruel, Spain | 256 | ||
Hemweg-8, The Netherlands | 329 | ||
Thermal power plants, Greece | Amorphous glass | [128] | |
Ag. Demetrios | 95–126 | ||
Achlada | 256 | ||
Megalopolis | 211 | ||
Aminteon | 155 | ||
Coal power plant, Iran | 648 | No data | [137,138] |
Coal-fired power plant, Coahuila, Mexico | 99 | No data | [126] |
Power stations, South Africa | No data | [54] | |
Komati | 160–207 | ||
Duvha | 182–270 | ||
Matla | 228–359 |
Pretreatment Stage | Leaching Conditions | Lithium Extraction | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
One-step pretreatment | |||
Pre-desilication | |||
0.4 M NaOH, 120 °C, S/L 1:3, 1 h, 300 rpm | 6 M HCl, 120 °C, S/L 1:20, 4 h | 82.2% | [135] |
Salt activation | |||
NH4F (SiO2/NH4F 1:1.35), 155 °C, 2 h | H2O, 70 °C, S/L 1:10, 2 h | 90.8% | [136] |
Roasting | |||
Na2CO3 (CFA/Na2CO3 1:0.5), 850 °C, 2 h | 0.5 M HCit, 30 °C, 1 h, 450 rpm | 97.3% | [137] |
Na2CO3 (CFA/Na2CO3 1:0.5), 850 °C, 2 h | Ps. putida, 75 °C, S/L 3:100, 500 rpm | 97.0% | [138] |
Na2CO3 (CFA/Na2CO3 1:1), 875 °C, 1.5 h | 0.4 M HCit, 50 °C, 1 h, S/L 1:125, 400 rpm | 90.5% | [141] |
Na2CO3 (CFA/Na2CO3 1:1), 800 °C, 2 h | 3 M HCl, 90 °C, S/L 1:20, 3 h | 90.4% | [142] |
Mechanical activation | |||
ball mill (CFA/ball 1:3.5), 1 h, 500 rpm | 5 M NaOH, 95 °C, S/L 1:20, 2 h | 91.6% | [139] |
Multi-step pretreatment | |||
I. Calcination | Na2S2O8 (Al2O3/Na2S2O8 1:3), H2O, 200 °C, 2.6 MPa, S/L 1:4, 2 h, 300 rpm | ||
800 °C, 3 h | 71.6% | [140] | |
II. Mechanochemical activation | |||
Na2S2O7 (Al2O3/Na2S2O7 1:8), 1 h, 300 rpm | |||
No pretreatment | |||
20% HCl, 95 °C, S/L 1:5, 2 h | 92.7% | [147] | |
3.9 M NaOH, 95 °C, S/L 1:5, 2 h | 42.0% | ||
alternate multistep leaching: | 84.0% | [143] | |
acid–alkali–acid–alkali–acid: | |||
6.3 M HCl, 5 M NaOH, 90 °C S/L 1:5, 2 h, stirring | |||
pressure leaching: | [144] | ||
40% H2SO4, 140 °C, S/L 1:3, 2 h (lab-scale) | 94.2% | ||
53% H2SO4, 160 °C, S/L 1:3, 2 h (pilot-scale) | 88.9% |
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Rudnik, E. Coal and Coal By-Products as Unconventional Lithium Sources: A Review of Occurrence Modes and Hydrometallurgical Strategies for Metal Recovery. Minerals 2024, 14, 849. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14080849
Rudnik E. Coal and Coal By-Products as Unconventional Lithium Sources: A Review of Occurrence Modes and Hydrometallurgical Strategies for Metal Recovery. Minerals. 2024; 14(8):849. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14080849
Chicago/Turabian StyleRudnik, Ewa. 2024. "Coal and Coal By-Products as Unconventional Lithium Sources: A Review of Occurrence Modes and Hydrometallurgical Strategies for Metal Recovery" Minerals 14, no. 8: 849. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14080849