Multivariate Analysis for Assessing Sources, and Potential Risks of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Lisbon Urban Soils
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. General Characterization and Levels of PAHs in Lisbon Urban Soils
3.2. Source Apportionment of PAHs in Lisbon Urban Soils
3.3. Risk Assessment of PAHs in Lisbon Soils
3.4. Potential Risks to the Environmental Health (ERA)
3.5. Potential Risks to Human Health (HHRA)
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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City | Inhab. | Median | Mean | Min | Max | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lisbon, Portugal | 564,567 | 559 | 2645 | 6.3 | 73,395 | This study |
456 | 1544 | 6.3 | 22,670 | [3] | ||
Viseu, Portugal | 47,250 | 83 | 169 | 6.0 | 790 | [3] |
Estarreja, Portugal | 7000 | 98 | - | 27 | 2016 | [16] |
Palermo, Italy | 850,000 | - | - | 947 b | 18,072 b | [4] |
Glasgow, Scotland | 600,000 | 8337 a | 11,930 a | 1487 a | 51,822 a | [23] |
Torino, Italy | 900,000 | 704 a | 1990 a | 148 a | 23,500 a | [23] |
Ljubljana, Slovenia | 300,000 | 791 a | 989 a | 218 a | 4488 a | [23] |
Terragona, Spain | 155,000 | - | 438 | 42 | 1472 | [24] |
Beijing, China | 18,000,000 | 688 | 1228 | 93 | 13,141 | [9] |
Shangai, China | 20,600,000 | 314 | 1700 | 62 | 31,900 | [25] |
Hong Kong | 6,800,000 | 140 | - | ND | 19,500 | [26] |
Harbin, China | 3,800,000 | 301 | 837 | 202 | 3256 | [27] |
Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Communalities | Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Communalities | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al | 0.964 | 0.118 | 0.944 | 0.972 | 0.103 | 0.956 |
Fe | 0.966 | 0.202 | 0.974 | 0.965 | 0.186 | 0.967 |
Co | 0.950 | 0.121 | 0.917 | 0.944 | 0.110 | 0.903 |
Cr | 0.933 | 0.229 | 0.924 | 0.918 | 0.214 | 0.889 |
Ni | 0.949 | 0.194 | 0.938 | 0.936 | 0.183 | 0.910 |
Ca | 0.309 | 0.650 | 0.518 | 0.347 | 0.643 | 0.533 |
Cu | 0.441 | 0.785 | 0.810 | 0.430 | 0.777 | 0.788 |
Hg | 0.026 | 0.862 | 0.744 | 0.018 | 0.856 | 0.733 |
Pb | 0.078 | 0.948 | 0.904 | 0.088 | 0.856 | 0.899 |
Zn | 0.412 | 0.797 | 0.805 | 0.424 | 0.795 | 0.812 |
Sum16 | 0.005 | 0.864 | 0.747 | 0.022 | 0.867 | 0.753 |
Clay | - | - | - | 0.753 | 0.223 | 0.616 |
OC | - | - | - | 0.500 | 0.418 | 0.424 |
Eigenvalue | 6.5 | 2.8 | - | 7.3 | 57 | - |
% CEV | 59 | 84 | - | 2.8 | 78 | - |
Compound | PNEC | HC5 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Med | Max | TU > 1 (%) | Min | Med | Max | TU > 1 (%) | |
NP | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.33 | 0 |
ACY | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.25 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.42 | 0 |
ACE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.0 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.20 | 0 |
FLU | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.17 | 0 |
PHE | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.49 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.09 | 3.4 | 5 |
ANT | 0.00 | 0.03 | 1.3 | 1 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.70 | 0 |
FLA | 0.00 | 0.03 | 2.9 | 2 | 0.00 | 0.13 | 13 | 8 |
PYR | 0.00 | 0.04 | 3.3 | 3 | 0.01 | 0.13 | 11 | 8 |
BAA | 0.00 | 0.28 | 23 | 17 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 2.8 | 2 |
CRY | 0.00 | 0.05 | 3.2 | 3 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 3.0 | 3 |
BBF | 0.00 | 0.11 | 7.5 | 5 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 2.4 | 3 |
BKF | 0.00 | 0.07 | 5.0 | 4 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 1.6 | 1 |
BAP | 0.00 | 0.51 | 25 | 33 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 1.0 | 0 |
IND | 0.00 | 0.22 | 9.4 | 13 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.70 | 0 |
DBAH | 0.00 | 0.10 | 4.8 | 5 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.20 | 0 |
BGHI | 0.00 | 0.19 | 6.1 | 11 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 1.0 | 0 |
TUm | 0.03 | 1.8 | 93 | 60 | 0.03 | 0.62 | 42 | 38 |
Compound | Dutch MPC | Dutch SRC | Spanish | Canadian | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Med | Max | Min | Med | Max | Min | Med | Max | Min | Med | Max | |
NP | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.15 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.31 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.15 |
ACY | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.56 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
ACE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.12 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
FLU | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.12 | - | - | - |
PHE | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.41 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 | - | - | - | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.49 |
ANT | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.61 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | - | - | - | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.21 |
FLA | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.75 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.83 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.25 |
PYR | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.86 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.14 | - | - | - | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.58 |
BAA | 0.00 | 0.24 | 0.97 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.31 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.86 |
CRY | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.78 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.10 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
BBF | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.90 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.08 | - | - | - | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.90 |
BKF | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.85 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.07 | - | - | - | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.81 |
BAP | 0.00 | 0.32 | 0.97 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.13 | 0.91 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.17 |
IND | 0.00 | 0.16 | 0.92 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.03 | - | - | - | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.80 |
DBAH | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.83 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.03 | - | - | - | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.50 |
BGHI | 0.00 | 0.14 | 0.88 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.22 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
TPm | 0.03 | 0.77 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.58 | 0.00 | 0.19 | 0.99 | 0.00 | 0.15 | 1.00 |
Statistical Data | Cancer Risk | Mutagenic Risk | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Residential | Worker | Recreational | Residential | Recreational | |
UCL | 8.97 × 10−6 | 2.38 × 10−6 | 5.06 × 10−7 | 3.33 × 10−5 | 2.13 × 10−6 |
median | 1.19 × 10−6 | 3.16 × 10−7 | 7.54 × 10−8 | 4.66 × 10−6 | 3.17 × 10−7 |
mean | 5.59 × 10−6 | 1.48 × 10−6 | 2.39 × 10−7 | 2.19 × 10−5 | 1.01 × 10−6 |
90% | 9.88 × 10−6 | 2.62 × 10−6 | 6.71 × 10−7 | 3.99 × 10−5 | 2.82 × 10−6 |
min | 9.50 × 10−9 | 2.52 × 10−9 | 7.07 × 10−10 | 3.53 × 10−8 | 2.97 × 10−9 |
max | 1.24 × 10−4 | 3.28 × 10−5 | 4.13 × 10−6 | 4.59 × 10−4 | 1.74 × 10−5 |
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Cachada, A.; Dias, A.C.; Reis, A.P.; Ferreira da Silva, E.; Pereira, R.; Duarte, A.d.C.; Patinha, C. Multivariate Analysis for Assessing Sources, and Potential Risks of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Lisbon Urban Soils. Minerals 2019, 9, 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9030139
Cachada A, Dias AC, Reis AP, Ferreira da Silva E, Pereira R, Duarte AdC, Patinha C. Multivariate Analysis for Assessing Sources, and Potential Risks of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Lisbon Urban Soils. Minerals. 2019; 9(3):139. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9030139
Chicago/Turabian StyleCachada, Anabela, Ana Claudia Dias, Amélia Paula Reis, Eduardo Ferreira da Silva, Ruth Pereira, Armando da Costa Duarte, and Carla Patinha. 2019. "Multivariate Analysis for Assessing Sources, and Potential Risks of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Lisbon Urban Soils" Minerals 9, no. 3: 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9030139