The Interaction of Seasons and Biogeochemical Properties of Water Regulate the Air–Water CO2 Exchanges in Two Major Tropical Estuaries, Bay of Bengal (India)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Sampling Strategy
2.3. Biogeochemical Properties
2.3.1. Physicochemical Properties
2.3.2. Biological Properties
2.3.3. Air–Water CO2 Flux
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Biogeochemical Properties of Estuaries
3.1.1. Biological Properties of Water in Estuaries
3.1.2. Physicochemical Properties of Water in Estuaries
3.2. Air–Water CO2 Fluxes in Estuaries and Their Drivers
3.3. Correlation among Physicochemical and Biological Parameters of Estuaries
4. Discussion
4.1. Biological Bloom and Behavior in Estuaries
4.2. Temporal and Spatial Relationship of Physicochemical Properties of Estuaries
4.3. Drivers of Variations of Air–Water CO2 Exchanges and Their Prediction
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters | Mahanadi | Dhamra | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-Monsoon | Monsoon | Post-Monsoon | Pre-Monsoon | Monsoon | Post-Monsoon | ||
Chl a (mg m−3) | Mean | 3.41 ± 1.36 1.71–6.28 | 3.16 ± 0.77 2.26–4.68 | 6.40 ± 1.23 4.51–8.84 | 6.83 ± 2.13 3.68–9.20 | 4.23 ± 1.69 2.40–6.92 | 7.15 ± 2.70 2.46–10.27 |
Range | |||||||
Fluorescence minimum | Mean | 44.73 ± 8.01 34.27–59.48 | 41.10 ± 7.36 34.24–56.34 | 67.86 ± 9.18 52.45–82.67 | 69.21 ± 15.64 45.78–87.95 | 50.66 ± 13.93 34.53–71.69 | 72.41 ± 18.95 37.23–92.45 |
Range | |||||||
Fluorescence maximum | Mean | 70.88 ± 16.5 51.78–103.86 | 64.86 ± 15.12 50.35–97.44 | 119.34 ± 20.07 88.67–153.75 | 125.8 ± 34.57 73.95–171.83 | 84.82 ± 29.91 51.68–130.79 | 134.08 ± 45.68 53.24–184.62 |
Range | |||||||
Yield | Mean | 0.36 ± 0.03 0.32–0.43 | 0.36 ± 0.03 0.32–0.42 | 0.43 ± 0.02 0.40–0.46 | 0.44 ± 0.03 0.38–0.49 | 0.39 ± 0.05 0.33–0.45 | 0.44 ± 0.07 0.30–0.51 |
Range | |||||||
Phycobilisome fluorescence | Mean | 17.44 ± 6.93 8.72–32.17 | 26.42 ± 6.25 18.34–38.94 | 39.27 ± 7.83 27.61–54.77 | 35.7 ± 10.94 19.32–48.21 | 37.37 ± 14.28 22.35–60.54 | 46.07 ± 17.42 16.04–66.27 |
Range | |||||||
PSII fluorescence | Mean | 3.45 ± 1.38 1.71–6.42 | 3.47 ± 0.79 2.53–4.98 | 6.60 ± 1.28 4.62–9.17 | 6.49 ± 1.98 3.53–8.65 | 3.94 ± 1.49 2.43–6.31 | 6.98 ± 2.52 2.54–9.94 |
Range | |||||||
PBS/PSII | Mean | 5.07 ± 0.11 4.89–5.20 | 7.61 ± 0.25 7.24–7.96 | 5.94 ± 0.08 5.74–6.03 | 5.50 ± 0.10 5.34–5.64 | 9.51 ± 0.30 8.88–9.83 | 6.55 ± 0.21 6.31–6.97 |
Range |
Parameters | Mahanadi | Dhamra | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-Monsoon | Monsoon | Post-Monsoon | Pre-Monsoon | Monsoon | Post-Monsoon | ||
CO2 flux (µmol m−2 h−1) | Mean | −6.5 ± 1.6 −9.2–−3.5 | 109.5 ± 31.5 63.8–154.1 | 28 ± 20.1 −0.7–57.1 | −4.7 ± 3.7 −9.2–0.3 | −14.2 ± 11.1 −25.8–12.2 | 1.8 ± 2.2 −0.7–5.6 |
Range | |||||||
fCO2 (water) (µatm) | Mean | 270.3 ± 17.4 240.5–289.6 | 759.4 ± 109.9 600.3–910.9 | 840.0 ± 294.2 417.6–1268.0 | 300.2 ± 31.4 270.5–365.2 | 258.8 ± 38.5 208.8–327.3 | 432.2 ± 31.2 395.4–485.6 |
Range | |||||||
fCO2 (air) (µatm) | Mean | 381.7 ± 2.724 379.4–388.2 | 379.7 ± 2.681 378.2–386.8 | 421.7 ± 7.397 414.1–432.7 | 382.2 ± 2.118 378.8–384.9 | 386.6 ± 3.9 382.2–394.90 | 406.3 ± 0.993 405.4–408.7 |
Range | |||||||
TA (µmol kg−1) | Mean | 1564.0 ± 54.63 1476.9–1669.5 | 1240.8 ± 105.8 1123.8–1457.9 | 1284.4 ± 250.2 1012.4–1669.3 | 1873.4 ± 213.1 1513.0–2151 | 1022.0 ± 52.3 919.8–1079.7 | 1831.9 ± 29.1 1769.2–1876.2 |
Range | |||||||
DIC (µmol kg−1) | Mean | 1415.9 ± 49.0 1346.8–1502.2 | 1234.6 ± 105.6 1112.5–1448.9 | 1270.1 ± 249.5 998.1–1648.7 | 1606.4 ± 140.9 1329.3–1774.6 | 934.2 ± 46.4 853.5–998.0 | 1683.5 ± 28.8 1622.3–1731.1 |
Range | |||||||
pH | Mean | 8.197 ± 0.015 8.180–8.230 | 7.847 ± 0.048 7.750–7.911 | 7.716 ± 0.153 7.541–7.962 | 8.059 ± 0.038 8.011–8.101 | 8.02 ± 0.088 7.840–8.101 | 7.974 ± 0.021 7.940–8.001 |
Range | |||||||
Water temperature (°C) | Mean | 31.4 ± 0.21 30.9–31.6 | 30.9 ± 0.32 30.5–31.4 | 28.8 ± 0.01 28.8–28.9 | 30.5 ± 0.71 29.6–31.0 | 30.8 ± 0.62 30.3–31.7 | 23.1 ± 0.13 22.9–23.3 |
Range | |||||||
Salinity (psu) | Mean | 8.8 ± 1.8 5.8–10.8 | 4.2 ± 0.6 3.1–5.1 | 6 ± 2.3 1.8–9.6 | 22.7 ± 2.1 19.5–25.5 | 10.8 ± 3.5 4.7–18.4 | 22.6 ± 0.5 21.9–23.3 |
Range | |||||||
D.O. (mg L−1) | Mean | 5.9 ± 0.4 5.5–6.9 | 6.1 ± 0.1 6.0–6.3 | 5.2 ± 0.5 4.0–5.7 | 5.5 ± 0.2 5.3–6.1 | 4.6 ± 0.4 4.0–5.2 | 6.5 ± 0.2 6.2–7.0 |
Range | |||||||
Nitrite (µmol L−1) | Mean | 1.562 ± 0.661 0.52–2.678 | 0.262 ± 0.035 0.209–0.313 | 0.100 ± 0.038 0.048–0.152 | 0.737 ± 0.572 0.052–1.650 | 0.309 ± 0.088 0.174–0.483 | 0.247 ± 0.25 BDL–0.774 |
Range | |||||||
Nitrate (µmol L−1) | Mean | 7.839 ± 4.771 2.639–15.038 | 14.731 ± 0.752 13.542–15.653 | 4.259 ± 2.579 1.977–10.728 | 9.028 ± 1.387 7.358–10.915 | 8.114 ± 1.81 6.454–12.202 | 16.391 ± 1.621 14.235–19.134 |
Range | |||||||
Ammonia (µmol L−1) | Mean | 0.055 ± 0.108 BDL–0.338 | 1.217 ± 0.36 0.832–1.756 | 1.351 ± 1.658 BDL–5.273 | 7.976 ± 11.246 BDL–34.315 | 1.127 ± 0.973 0.211–3.464 | 5.369 ± 6.809 0.658–20.516 |
Range | |||||||
Phosphate (µmol L−1) | Mean | 2.554 ± 1.198 1.348–5.037 | 5.819 ± 1.423 4.250–8.392 | 0.967 ± 0.504 0.324–1.758 | 0.467 ± 0.124 0.284–0.659 | 1.485 ± 0.194 1.289–1.889 | 0.363 ± 0.203 0.137–0.811 |
Range |
FCO2 (Flux Density) | PH | Water Temperature | Salinity | Chl a | F0 | Fm | Yield | PBS | PS II | PBS/PSII | DO | NO2− | NO3− | NH3 | PO43− | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FCO2 (Flux density) | 1 | |||||||||||||||
PH | −0.597 ** | 1 | ||||||||||||||
Water temperature | 0.152 | 0.186 | 1 | |||||||||||||
salinity | −0.504 ** | 0.313 * | −0.535 ** | 1 | ||||||||||||
Chl a | −0.327* | −0.016 | −0.448 ** | 0.438 ** | 1 | |||||||||||
F0 | −0.359 ** | −0.017 | −0.459 ** | 0.441 ** | 0.990 ** | 1 | ||||||||||
Fm | −0.351 ** | −0.002 | −0.468 ** | 0.454 ** | 0.994 ** | 0.996 ** | 1 | |||||||||
Yield | −0.331 * | −0.024 | −0.401 ** | 0.432 ** | 0.962 ** | 0.9 57** | 0.965 ** | 1 | ||||||||
PBS | −0.222 | −0.114 | −0.456 ** | 0.289 * | 0.902 ** | 0.896 ** | 0.906 ** | 0.890 ** | 1 | |||||||
PS II | −0.262 | −0.076 | −0.457 ** | 0.381 ** | 0.994 ** | 0.984 ** | 0.985 ** | 0.949 ** | 0.892 ** | 1 | ||||||
PBS/PSII | 0.133 | −0.160 | 0.077 | −0.228 | −0.206 | −0.216 | −0.198 | −0.159 | 0.196 | −0.238 | 1 | |||||
DO | 0.265 | 0.056 | −0.452 ** | 0.271 * | 0.043 | 0.029 | 0.049 | 0.013 | −0.077 | 0.072 | −0.394 ** | 1 | ||||
NO2− | −0.136 | 0.217 | 0.114 | 0.207 | −0.087 | −0.109 | −0.096 | 0.008 | −0.196 | −0.105 | −0.229 | −0.017 | 1 | |||
NO3− | 0.339 * | 0.008 | −0.443 ** | 0.292 * | −0.016 | −0.057 | −0.022 | −0.037 | 0.074 | −0.011 | 0.156 | 0.628 ** | −0.100 | 1 | ||
NH3 | −0.123 | 0.086 | −0.109 | 0.395 ** | 0.360 ** | 0.361 ** | 0.365 ** | 0.334 * | 0.244 | 0.328 * | −0.122 | 0.070 | −0.102 | 0.036 | 1 | |
PO43− | 0.718 ** | −0.104 | 0.432 ** | −0.612 ** | −0.571 ** | −0.587 ** | −0.570 ** | −0.566 ** | −0.428 ** | −0.534 ** | 0.219 | 0.157 | −0.096 | 0.257 | −0.218 | 1 |
FCO2 (Flux Density) | PH | Water Temperature | Salinity | Chl a | F0 | Fm | Yield | PBS | PS II | PBS/PSII | DO | NO2− | NO3− | NH3 | PO43− | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FCO2 (Flux density) | 1 | |||||||||||||||
PH | −0.716 ** | 1 | ||||||||||||||
Water temperature | −0.601 ** | 0.479 * | 1 | |||||||||||||
salinity | 0.532 ** | −0.001 | −0.485 * | 1 | ||||||||||||
Chl a | 0.105 | 0.283 | −0.288 | 0.435 * | 1 | |||||||||||
F0 | 0.089 | 0.286 | −0.302 | 0.436 * | 0.993 ** | 1 | ||||||||||
Fm | 0.098 | 0.273 | −0.309 | 0.427 * | 0.996 ** | 0.997 ** | 1 | |||||||||
Yield | 0.070 | 0.297 | −0.223 | 0.407 * | 0.954 ** | 0.951 ** | 0.960 ** | 1 | ||||||||
PBS | −0.149 | 0.223 | −0.283 | 0.063 | 0.867 ** | 0.871 ** | 0.881 ** | 0.855 ** | 1 | |||||||
PS II | 0.145 | 0.247 | −0.334 | 0.473 * | 0.997 ** | 0.991 ** | 0.994 ** | 0.945 ** | 0.853 ** | 1 | ||||||
PBS/PSII | −0.544 ** | −0.099 | 0.288 | −0.918 ** | −0.462 * | −0.457 * | −0.442 * | −0.411 * | 0.000 | −0.492 ** | 1 | |||||
DO | 0.608 ** | −0.250 | −0.829 ** | 0.781 ** | 0.460* | 0.464 * | 0.464 * | 0.378 | 0.240 | 0.509 ** | −0.644 ** | 1 | ||||
NO2− | 0.117 | 0.027 | 0.116 | 0.221 | −0.091 | −0.121 | −0.106 | 0.036 | −0.210 | −0.096 | −0.226 | −0.056 | 1 | |||
NO3− | 0.625 ** | −0.541 ** | −0.903 ** | 0.502 ** | 0.299 | 0.319 | 0.315 | 0.213 | 0.251 | 0.351 | −0.343 | 0.841 ** | −0.193 | 1 | ||
NH3 | 0.077 | 0.245 | 0.032 | 0.298 | 0.324 | 0.331 | 0.320 | 0.284 | 0.127 | 0.308 | −0.329 | 0.148 | −0.121 | −0.073 | 1 | |
PO43− | −0.589 ** | −0.005 | 0.580 ** | −0.886 ** | −0.505 ** | −0.499 ** | −0.498 ** | −0.450 * | −0.156 | −0.536 ** | 0.884 ** | −0.796 ** | −0.198 | −0.512 ** | −0.251 | 1 |
FCO2 (Flux Density) | PH | Water Temperature | Salinity | Chl a | F0 | Fm | Yield | PBS | PS II | PBS/PSII | DO | NO2− | NO3− | NH3 | PO43− | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FCO2 (Flux density) | 1 | |||||||||||||||
PH | −0.543 ** | 1 | ||||||||||||||
Water temperature | 0.066 | 0.734 ** | 1 | |||||||||||||
salinity | −0.577 ** | 0.390* | 0.197 | 1 | ||||||||||||
Chl a | −0.294 | −0.353 | −0.740 ** | −0.318 | 1 | |||||||||||
F0 | −0.354 | −0.338 | −0.760 ** | −0.232 | 0.983 ** | 1 | ||||||||||
Fm | −0.343 | −0.340 | −0.762 ** | −0.263 | 0.987 ** | 0.998 ** | 1 | |||||||||
Yield | −0.285 | −0.373 | −0.702 ** | −0.300 | 0.957 ** | 0.950 ** | 0.958 ** | 1 | ||||||||
PBS | 0.053 | −0.545 ** | −0.733 ** | −0.587 ** | 0.919 ** | 0.891 ** | 0.903 ** | 0.898 ** | 1 | |||||||
PS II | −0.241 | −0.384* | −0.742 ** | −0.366 | 0.998 ** | 0.976 ** | 0.981 ** | 0.952 ** | 0.940 ** | 1 | ||||||
PBS/PSII | 0.907 ** | −0.506 ** | 0.005 | −0.721 ** | −0.183 | −0.235 | −0.211 | −0.140 | 0.208 | −0.128 | 1 | |||||
DO | 0.290 | 0.280 | 0.683 ** | 0.021 | −0.650 ** | −0.669 ** | −0.666 ** | −0.569 ** | −0.563 ** | −0.644 ** | 0.250 | 1 | ||||
NO2− | −0.526 ** | 0.801 ** | 0.624 ** | 0.498 ** | −0.344 | −0.349 | −0.351 | −0.321 | −0.582 ** | −0.378 | −0.611 ** | 0.255 | 1 | |||
NO3− | 0.646 ** | 0.036 | 0.528 ** | −0.326 | −0.545 ** | −0.632 ** | −0.606 ** | −0.502 ** | −0.302 | −0.510 ** | 0.625 ** | 0.574 ** | −0.040 | 1 | ||
NH3 | 0.328 | −0.523 ** | −0.375 | −0.319 | 0.219 | 0.241 | 0.250 | 0.248 | 0.361 | 0.244 | 0.366 | −0.135 | −0.470 * | 0.038 | 1 | |
PO43− | 0.637 ** | 0.086 | 0.505 ** | −0.317 | −0.651 ** | −0.673 ** | −0.652 ** | −0.643 ** | −0.369 | −0.614 ** | 0.694 ** | 0.490 ** | −0.085 | 0.727 ** | 0.058 | 1 |
Regression Equation | r2 (p ≤ 0.05) | |
---|---|---|
Mahanadi | ||
Pre-Monsoon | FCO2 = −235.2 + 30.5 pH − 1.4 salinity − 0.12 Fm + 5.3NH4 | r2 = 0.94 |
Monsoon | FCO2 = 4436.2 − 552.4 pH | r2 = 0.69 |
Post-Monsoon | FCO2 = 9397.4 − 171.1 pH − 279.8 Water temperature +179.1 NO2 | r2 = 0.92 |
Dhamra | ||
Pre-Monsoon | FCO2 = 160.3 − 5.41 temperature | r2 = 0.95 |
Monsoon | FCO2 = 867.7 − 108.7 pH − 0.92 salinity | r2 = 0.93 |
Post-Monsoon | FCO2 = 363.7 − 58.6 pH + 5.4 Water temperature 7 − 0.91 salinity | r2 = 0.98 |
Mahanadi Annual | FCO2 = 620.4 − 160.5 pH +24.9 temperature +17.5 Chl a − 836.8 yield + 29.3 PBS:PSII | r2 = 0.94 |
Dhamra Annual | FCO2 = 965.9 − 116.1 pH − 0.39 salinity − 4.6 PBS:PSII | r2 = 0.90 |
Mahanadi and Dhamra Annual | FCO2 = 1079.8 − 162.6 pH + 4.0 temperature + 13.8 DO +1.9 nitrate +10.1 phosphate | r2 = 0.86 |
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Pattanaik, S.; Mohapatra, P.K.; Mohapatra, D.; Swain, S.; Panda, C.R.; Dash, P.K. The Interaction of Seasons and Biogeochemical Properties of Water Regulate the Air–Water CO2 Exchanges in Two Major Tropical Estuaries, Bay of Bengal (India). Life 2022, 12, 1536. https://doi.org/10.3390/life12101536
Pattanaik S, Mohapatra PK, Mohapatra D, Swain S, Panda CR, Dash PK. The Interaction of Seasons and Biogeochemical Properties of Water Regulate the Air–Water CO2 Exchanges in Two Major Tropical Estuaries, Bay of Bengal (India). Life. 2022; 12(10):1536. https://doi.org/10.3390/life12101536
Chicago/Turabian StylePattanaik, Suchismita, Pradipta Kumar Mohapatra, Debasish Mohapatra, Sanhita Swain, Chitta Ranjan Panda, and Pradeep Kumar Dash. 2022. "The Interaction of Seasons and Biogeochemical Properties of Water Regulate the Air–Water CO2 Exchanges in Two Major Tropical Estuaries, Bay of Bengal (India)" Life 12, no. 10: 1536. https://doi.org/10.3390/life12101536