Cardiovascular Risk Profile on the Island of Santiago—Cabo Verde (PrevCardio.CV Study)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample
- Estimated prevalence: The sample size calculation assumed an estimated prevalence of 50%. This prevalence was chosen because it provides the maximum variability in the population, leading to the most conservative and thus larger sample size, ensuring robustness in the study results.
- Confidence interval: A 95% confidence interval was selected. This level of confidence is standard in research and implies that we are 95% confident that the sample results reflect the true population parameters.
- Standard error: A standard error of 4% was set to ensure the precision of the estimates. This margin of error is a typical choice for public health studies, balancing the need for accuracy with practical considerations.
2.2. Study Design
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
- Age Group: There is a statistically significant relationship between diabetes and the age group of 58 to 67 years. This suggests that individuals within this age range are more likely to have diabetes compared to other age groups, which can be attributed to various factors such as aging, lifestyle, and genetic predisposition. The statistical significance indicates that this relationship is not due to random chance but rather represents a true association in the population.
- Hypercholesterolemia and Hypertriglyceridemia: A statistically significant relationship was also found between diabetes and both hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia. This finding is consistent with the known medical correlation where dyslipidemia often coexists with diabetes, contributing to cardiovascular risks. The statistical significance reinforces the validity of this association.
4. Discussion
4.1. Introduction to Epidemiological Changes
4.2. Epidemiological Profile and Risk Factors
4.3. Sociodemographic Variables and Risk Factors
4.4. Education Level and Health Literacy
4.5. Nutrition and CVDs
4.6. Body Mass Index (BMI)
4.7. Physical Activity and Sedentary Lifestyle
4.8. Alcohol and Tobacco Consumption
4.9. Lipid Profile
4.10. Hypertension
4.11. Diabetes
4.12. Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) History
4.13. Municipality of Ribeira Grande de Santiago
4.14. Sex Differences in Risk Factors
- ○
- Women often juggle multiple responsibilities, both domestic and professional, which can increase stress levels—a significant risk factor for CVD.
- ○
- As primary caregivers, women may have less time for physical activity and personal healthcare.
- ○
- Disparities in access to healthcare, education, and well-paying jobs may limit women’s ability to adopt healthy lifestyles.
- ○
- Lower educational levels among women can result in poorer health literacy and less effective management of CVD risk factors.
- ○
- Higher rates of physical inactivity among women contribute to obesity, hypertension, and other risk factors for CVD.
- ○
- Dietary habits influenced by cultural and economic constraints may lead to unhealthy eating, exacerbating the risk of CVD.
- ○
- Limited access to health information and preventive services may affect women’s ability to manage risk factors effectively.
- ○
- Women may delay seeking medical care or treatment due to prioritizing family needs over their own health.
- ○
- Hormonal changes related to reproductive events, such as menopause, are associated with increased cardiovascular risk.
- ○
- Women often have different risk profiles, with higher prevalence of conditions like obesity and hypertension.
- ○
- Higher rates of obesity, hypertension, and diabetes among women contribute significantly to their overall CVD risk.
- ○
- While alcohol consumption is more common among men, women who drink may face heightened risks due to social and emotional factors.
- ○
- Although less prevalent, smoking among women also adds to the risk, especially when combined with other factors.
4.15. Multiple Risk Factors
4.16. Sample Size and Representativeness
4.17. Data Collection Method
4.18. Comparative Data Issues
4.19. Risk Factor Measurement
4.20. Prevalence Variability
4.21. Sociocultural Differences
4.22. Sex Analysis
4.23. Uncontrolled Confounding Factors
4.24. Generalizability of Results
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Age Group (Years) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
18–27 n = 126 | 28–37 n = 98 | 38–47 n = 102 | 48–57 n = 94 | 58–67 n = 62 | 68–77 n = 69 | 78–87 n = 36 | >88 n = 12 | F (%) n = 329 | M (%) n = 270 | |
Underweight (%) | 38.3 | 16.1 | 17.9 | 7.1 | 10.7 | 5.4 | 3.6 | 0 | 53.6 | 46.4 |
Normal Weight (%) | 28.8 | 20.5 | 18.1 | 12.5 | 11.1 | 5.2 | 3.5 | 0.3 | 53.8 | 46.2 |
Overweight (%) | 9.2 | 19.0 | 19.6 | 20.9 | 16.6 | 11 | 3.1 | 0.6 | 58.3 | 41.7 |
Obesity (%) | 6.5 | 25 | 25 | 14.1 | 21.7 | 4.3 | 3.3 | 0 | 80.4 | 19.6 |
Variables | Total (%) | F (%) | M (%) | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sedentary lifestyle | 65.1 | 60.5 | 39.5 | <0.001 | |
Smoking | Smoker | 7.3 | 15.9 | 84.1 | <0.001 |
Ex-Smoker | 3.7 | 9.1 | 90.9 | ||
Illicit Substances | 4.7 | 50 | 50 | ||
Alcoholism | 14.4 | 4.7 | 95.3 | <0.001 |
Variables | Total | F | M | Relation with Sex (p) | Relation with AG | Relacion with AG (p) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diabetes | 7.5% | 71.1% | 28.9% | 0.013 | 58–67 | <0.001 |
Hypercholesterolemia | 8.3% | 80% | 20% | <0.001 | 58–67 | <0.001 |
History of Hypercholesterolemia | 12% | 77.8% | 22.2% | <0.001 | 58–67 | <0.001 |
Hypertriglyceridemia | 1.3% | 62.5% | 37.5% | 0.378 | 58–67 | 0.206 |
Risk Factors | p |
---|---|
Sex | 0.862 |
Obesity | 0.146 |
Sedentary lifestyle | 0.664 |
Age Group (58–67 years) | 0.002 |
Education Level (Basic Education) | 0.536 |
Alcoholism | 0.732 |
Smoking | 0.380 |
Hypercholesterolemia | 0.006 |
Hypertriglyceridemia | <0.001 |
Risk Factors | p |
---|---|
Sex | 0.755 |
Age Group | <0.001 |
Body mass index | 0.001 |
Obesity | 0.004 |
Sedentary lifestyle | 0.268 |
Alcoholism | 0.234 |
Smoking | 0.307 |
Diabetes | 0.041 |
Hypercholesterolemia | 0.119 |
Hypertriglyceridemia | 0.220 |
Risk Factors | Predominance | % | p |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | Feminine | 54.8 | 0.151 |
Age group | 18–27 years | 21 | 0.174 |
Body mass index | Normal weight | 48.1 | 0.740 |
Education level | Basic education | 54.4 | 0.304 |
Physical activity | Sedentary | 65.1 | 0.740 |
Smoking | Non-smokers | 84.3 | 0.925 |
Alcoholism | Non-consumers | 48.6 | 0.094 |
Hypercholesterolemia | Unknown | 56.8 | 0.007 |
Hypertriglyceridemia | Unknown | 72.1 | <0.001 |
Family with cardiovascular brain diseases | No Illness | 58.3 | 0.701 |
Arterial hypertension | Without AHT | 67.4 | 0.049 |
Diabetes | Non-diabetics | 96.2 | 0.366 |
Individuals with three or more risk factors | Not applicable | 73.1 | 0.144 |
Places | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | P | Sta.C | S.C | T. | S.D | C.S.M | S.S.M | R.G.S | S.L.O | p |
Obesity | 17.6 | 10 | 18.4 | 8.8 | 14.8 | 23.1 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 8.3 | 0.391 |
Sedentary lifestyle | 65.3 | 58.9 | 77.6 | 67.6 | 40.7 | 76.9 | 50 | 87.5 | 66.7 | 0.16 |
Alcoholism | 7.9 | 11.1 | 30.6 | 50 | 14.8 | 11.5 | 18.8 | 31.2 | 25 | <0.001 |
Smoking | 8.8 | 7.8 | 2 | 29 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 25 | 16.7 | 0.004 |
Arterial hypertension | 34 | 27.8 | 24.5 | 29.4 | 25.9 | 34.6 | 43.8 | 50 | 41.7 | 0.532 |
Diabetes | 4.3 | 5.6 | 0 | 2.9 | 3.7 | 3.8 | 0 | 6.2 | 0 | 0.832 |
Hypercholesterolemia | 9.4 | 10 | 4.1 | 2.9 | 11.1 | 3.8 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 8.3 | <0.001 |
Hypertriglyceridemia | 0.6 | 3.3 | 0 | 0 | 3.7 | 3.8 | 6.2 | 0 | 0 | <0.001 |
Distribution of RF | n | Total (%) | M (%) | F (%) | Predominance RF |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
No RF | 56 | 9.3 | 58.9 | 41.1 | 18–27 |
One RF | 165 | 27.5 | 47.3 | 52.7 | 18–27 |
Two RF | 217 | 36.2 | 45.2 | 54.8 | 38–47 |
Three or more RF | 161 | 26.9 | 38.6 | 61.4 | 58–67 |
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Rodrigues, F.; Mascarenhas, K.; Rodrigues, J.; Coelho, P. Cardiovascular Risk Profile on the Island of Santiago—Cabo Verde (PrevCardio.CV Study). Life 2024, 14, 966. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14080966
Rodrigues F, Mascarenhas K, Rodrigues J, Coelho P. Cardiovascular Risk Profile on the Island of Santiago—Cabo Verde (PrevCardio.CV Study). Life. 2024; 14(8):966. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14080966
Chicago/Turabian StyleRodrigues, Francisco, Kelly Mascarenhas, Júlio Rodrigues, and Patrícia Coelho. 2024. "Cardiovascular Risk Profile on the Island of Santiago—Cabo Verde (PrevCardio.CV Study)" Life 14, no. 8: 966. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14080966